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Viridiplantae

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Viridiplantae
An assortment of thallophyte Viridiplantae in a rock pool, Taiwan
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: CAM
Clade: Archaeplastida
Clade: Viridiplantae
Cavalier-Smith 1981
Subgroups
Synonyms
  • Plantae Copeland 1938[2][3]
  • Euchlorophyta Whittaker 1969[4]
  • Chlorophyta Cavalier-Smith 1981 sensu Hoek & Jahns 1978[5]
  • Chlorobionta Jeffrey 1982, emend. Bremer 1985, emend. Lewis & McCourt 2004
  • Chlorobiota Kendrick & Crane 1997
  • Chloroplastida Adl et al. 2005
  • Viridiplantae Cavalier-Smith 1981[6]
  • Phyta Barkley 1939, emend. Holt & Uidica 2007
  • Cormophyta Endlicher 1836
  • Cormobionta Rothmaler 1948
  • Euplanta Barkley 1949
  • Telomobionta Takhtajan 1964
  • Embryobionta Cronquist et al. 1966
  • Metaphyta Whittaker 1969

Viridiplantae (New Latin for "green plants"), also known as kingdom Plantae sensu stricto ("plants in a narrow sense"), is a clade of mostly autotrophic eukaryotes that constitutes the largest group within the predominantly photosynthetic superclade Archaeplastida, with around half a million known species that include all green algae and land plants (embryophytes, which evolved from freshwater green algae known as streptophytes). They are important primary producers in both aquatic (marine and freshwater) and terrestrial ecosystems, and are significant contributors to the Earth's oxygen, carbon and water cycles.

Compared to the archaeplastidian sister groups Rhodaria (red algae, rhodelphidians and picozoans) and Glaucophyta ("grey algae"), Viridiplantae are unique in that almost all members (with the exception of parasitic plants and the heterotrophic algae Prototheca) have chloroplasts with both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b (the latter absent in other archaeplastidians) but lack phycobiliproteins (which are present in other archaeplastidians) — thus typically presenting an untainted green color — and carbohydrates produced by photosynthetic carbon fixation is stored as starch directly inside the chloroplasts or in specialized non-pigmented plastids known as amyloplasts.[7] Their cell walls consist of a network of semicrystalline cellulose microfibrils hydrogen-bonded with minor amounts of hemicellulosic polysaccharides such as xyloglucan and glucuronan, or with the cellulose replaced by mannans as well as sulfated/pyruvylated galactans and arabinans; while "later-diverging charophytes" (charophyceans, coleochaetophyceans, zygnematophyceans and embryophytes) have a framework of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of pectins, hemicelluloses, arabinogalactans and extensins as well as lignin or lignin-like polymers.[8]

In 2005, Sina Adl and colleagues proposed the name Chloroplastida for the group. In 2012, Frederik Leliaert and colleagues suggested a revised taxonomy of the Viridiplantae. In 2019, M. Leebens-Mack and colleagues proposed a phylogeny based on analysis of over a thousand plant genomes. It renders the former "chlorophyte algae" and "streptophyte algae" paraphyletic, as the land plants arose from within them.

Definition

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Viridiplantae (lit. 'green plants')[6] is a clade of around 450,000–500,000 species of chloroplast-bearing eukaryotes. Most of them are autotrophs that obtain their energy by photosynthesis and play important primary production roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.[9] The clade includes all green algae, which are primarily aquatic; many are microscopic unicellular phytoplankton. It also includes the macroscopic, multicellular, generally complex-structured land plants (embryophytes, i.e. Plantae sensu strictissimo), which emerged from within the freshwater green algae clade Streptophyta[10][11][12] during the Ordivician.[13][14]

In traditional taxonomy, the classification of green algae typically exclude the land plants, rendering them a paraphyletic group; however it is cladistically accurate to regard land plants as a specialized clade of green algae that had evolved to thrive on dry land,[15] thus making Viridiplantae a monophyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from green algae, some authors are starting to include them.[15][16][17][18][19]

Viridiplantae species all have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins. In some classification systems, the group has been treated as a kingdom[20] under various names such as Viridiplantae, Chlorobionta or simply the kingdom Plantae (sensu stricto), the lattermost expanding upon the traditional grouping of (land) plants to include all green algae closely and distantly related to Embryophyta. Adl et al., who produced a classification for all eukaryotes in 2005, introduced the name Chloroplastida for this group, reflecting the group having primary chloroplasts, and they rejected the name Viridiplantae on the grounds that some of the species are not plants as understood traditionally.[21] Together with Rhodophyta (red algae), Glaucophyta (grey algae) and other basal groups such as the phagotrophic Rhodelphidia[22] and the picoplanktonic Picozoa (both considered sister to red algae), Viridiplantae belong to the larger primary algae clade Archaeplastida.

Evolution

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Taxonomy

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Leliaert et al, 2012 propose the following simplified taxonomy of the Viridiplantae.[23]

Phylogeny

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In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1,153 plant species was proposed.[25] The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced. Both the "chlorophyte algae" and the "streptophyte algae" are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis.[26][27] The classification of Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al. 2018,[28] and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced.[29][30]

Archaeplastida
"chlorophyte algae"
"streptophyte algae"

Ancestrally, the green algae were flagellates.[23]

References

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  1. ↑ Tang, Qing (24 February 2020). "A one-billion-year-old multicellular chlorophyte". Nature Ecology and Evolution. 4 (5): 543–549. Bibcode:2020NatEE...4..543T. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1122-9. PMC 8668152. PMID 32094536.
  2. ↑ Copeland, Herbert F. (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 13 (4): 383–420. doi:10.1086/394568. S2CID 84634277.
  3. ↑ Copeland, H.F. (1956). The Classification of Lower Organisms. Palo Alto: Pacific Books. p. 6.
  4. ↑ Whittaker, R.H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms" (PDF). Science. 163 (3863): 150–60. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.403.5430. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-11-17. Retrieved 2015-01-31. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)
  5. ↑ van den Hoek, C.; Jahns, H.M. (1978). Einführung in die Phykologie (in German). Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. ISBN 978-3-13-551101-6.
  6. 1 2 Cavalier-Smith, Tom (1981). "Eukaryote kingdoms: seven or nine?". Bio Systems. 14 (3–4): 461–481. Bibcode:1981BiSys..14..461C. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(81)90050-2. PMID 7337818.
  7. ↑ Viola, R.; Nyvall, P.; Pedersén, M. (2001). "The unique features of starch metabolism in red algae". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1474): 1417–1422. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1644. PMC 1088757. PMID 11429143.
  8. ↑ Fuertes-Rabanal, María; Rebaque, Diego; Largo-Gosens, Asier; Encina, Antonio; Mélida, Hugo (2024-12-20). "Cell walls: a comparative view of the composition of cell surfaces of plants, algae, and microorganisms" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Botany. 76 (10). Oxford University Press: 2614–2645. doi:10.1093/jxb/erae512. Retrieved 2026-08-27.
  9. ↑ Leebens-Mack, J.H.; et al. (One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes Initiative) (October 2019). "One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants". Nature. 574 (7780): 679–685. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2. PMC 6872490. PMID 31645766.
  10. ↑ Cocquyt, Ellen; Verbruggen, Heroen; Leliaert, Frederik; Zechman, Frederick W; Sabbe, Koen; De Clerck, Olivier (February 2009). "Gain and loss of elongation factor genes in green algae". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 9 (1): 39. Bibcode:2009BMCEE...9...39C. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-39. PMC 2652445. PMID 19216746.
  11. ↑ Becker, B. (2007). Function and Evolution of the Vacuolar Compartment in Green Algae and Land Plants (Viridiplantae). International Review of Cytology. Vol. 264. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(07)64001-7. ISBN 978-0-12-374263-6. PMID 17964920.
  12. ↑ Kim, E.; Graham, L.E. (July 2008). Redfield, Rosemary Jeanne (ed.). "EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata". PLOS One. 3 (7) e2621. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2621K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002621. PMC 2440802. PMID 18612431.
  13. ↑ Su, Danyan; Yang, Lingxiao; Shi, Xuan; Ma, Xiaoya; Zhou, Xiaofan; Hedges, S Blair; Zhong, Bojian (2021-07-29). Battistuzzi, Fabia Ursula (ed.). "Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analyses Reveal the Monophyly of Bryophytes and Neoproterozoic Origin of Land Plants". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 38 (8): 3332–3344. doi:10.1093/molbev/msab106. PMC 8321542. PMID 33871608.
  14. ↑ Becker, B. & Marin, B. (2009), "Streptophyte algae and the origin of embryophytes", Annals of Botany, 103 (7): 999–1004, doi:10.1093/aob/mcp044, PMC 2707909, PMID 19273476
  15. 1 2 Delwiche, C.F.; Timme, R.E. (June 2011). "Plants". Current Biology. 21 (11): R417–22. Bibcode:2011CBio...21.R417D. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.04.021. PMID 21640897.
  16. ↑ "Charophycean Green Algae Home Page". www.life.umd.edu. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
  17. ↑ Ruhfel, Brad R.; Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Burleigh, J. Gordon (February 2014). "From algae to angiosperms-inferring the phylogeny of green plants (Viridiplantae) from 360 plastid genomes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14 (1): 23. Bibcode:2014BMCEE..14...23R. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-23. PMC 3933183. PMID 24533922.
  18. ↑ Delwiche, Charles F.; Cooper, E.D. (October 2015). "The Evolutionary Origin of a Terrestrial Flora". Current Biology. 25 (19): R899–910. Bibcode:2015CBio...25.R899D. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.029. PMID 26439353.
  19. ↑ Parfrey, Laura Wegener; Lahr, Daniel J. G.; Knoll, Andrew H.; Katz, Laura A. (August 2011). "Estimating the timing of early eukaryotic diversification with multigene molecular clocks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (33): 13624–9. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10813624P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1110633108. PMC 3158185. PMID 21810989.
  20. ↑ "Viridiplantae". Retrieved 2009-03-08.
  21. ↑ Adl, Sina M.; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Farmer, Mark A.; et al. (2005). "The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 52 (5): 399–451. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x. PMID 16248873. S2CID 8060916.
  22. ↑ Bowles, Alexander M. C.; Williamson, Christopher J.; Williams, Tom A.; Lenton, Timothy M.; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2022-10-31). "The origin and early evolution of plants". Trends in Plant Science. 28 (3): 312–329. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2022.09.009. hdl:10871/131900. PMID 36328872. S2CID 253303816.
  23. 1 2 Leliaert, Frederik; Smith, David R.; Moreau, Hervé; Herron, Matthew D.; Verbruggen, Heroen; Delwiche, Charles F.; De Clerck, Olivier (2012). "Phylogeny and molecular evolution of the green algae" (PDF). Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 31 (1): 1–46. Bibcode:2012CRvPS..31....1L. doi:10.1080/07352689.2011.615705. S2CID 17603352.
  24. ↑ Marin, B. (September 2012). "Nested in the Chlorellales or independent class? Phylogeny and classification of the Pedinophyceae (Viridiplantae) revealed by molecular phylogenetic analyses of complete nuclear and plastid-encoded rRNA operons". Protist. 163 (5): 778–805. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2011.11.004. PMID 22192529.
  25. ↑ Leebens-Mack, M.; Barker, M.; Carpenter, E.; et al. (2019). "One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants". Nature. 574 (7780): 679–685. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2. PMC 6872490. PMID 31645766.
  26. ↑ Liang, Zhe; et al. (2019). "Mesostigma viride Genome and Transcriptome Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of Streptophyta". Advanced Science. 7 (1) 1901850. doi:10.1002/advs.201901850. PMC 6947507. PMID 31921561.
  27. ↑ Wang, Sibo; et al. (2020). "Genomes of early-diverging streptophyte algae shed light on plant terrestrialization". Nature Plants. 6 (2): 95–106. Bibcode:2020NatPl...6...95W. doi:10.1038/s41477-019-0560-3. PMC 7027972. PMID 31844283.
  28. ↑ Puttick, Mark; et al. (2018). "The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte". Current Biology. 28 (5): 733–745. Bibcode:2018CBio...28E.733P. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063. hdl:10400.1/11601. PMID 29456145.
  29. ↑ Zhang, Jian; et al. (2020). "The hornwort genome and early land plant evolution". Nature Plants. 6 (2): 107–118. Bibcode:2020NatPl...6..107Z. doi:10.1038/s41477-019-0588-4. PMC 7027989. PMID 32042158.
  30. ↑ Li, Fay Wei; et al. (2020). "Anthoceros genomes illuminate the origin of land plants and the unique biology of hornworts". Nature Plants. 6 (3): 259–272. Bibcode:2020NatPl...6..259L. doi:10.1038/s41477-020-0618-2. PMC 8075897. PMID 32170292.
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