Wesleyan theology

For churches or universities called "Wesleyan", see Wesleyan (disambiguation).

Wesleyan theology, also known as Wesleyan-Arminian theology or Wesleyan Methodist theology, is a Protestant theological tradition based upon the ministry and writings of the 18th-century English evangelical reformers John Wesley and Charles Wesley. More broadly, it refers to the theological system reflected in the sermons, theological treatises, letters, journals, diaries, hymns, and other spiritual writings of the Wesleys and their contemporary associates. A notable figure among these associates was John William Fletcher, was particularly influential as an early systematic theologian of early Methodism.

Methodism developed into a distinct theological tradition characterized by an emphasis on a deeply experiential faith. John Wesley, in particular, was deeply influenced by the Moravian Christians, an influence that contributed to his transformative Aldersgate experience in 1738. Although Methodism originated as a renewal movement within the Church of England, it eventually diverged from Anglicanism to form a distinct tradition. It places particular emphasis on the New Birth and personal holiness, while calling believers to continual growth in grace and to an experiential assurance of the work of the Holy Spirit.

A distinctive hallmark of Wesleyan theology is its definition of sin as a voluntary transgression of a known law of God. Methodist doctrine teaches that the Christian life subsequent to conversion should be characterized by victory over willful sin. It also emphasizes entire sanctification, understood as the complete purification of the heart in perfect love, as a central distinctive of the Methodist tradition. Grounded in the primary authority of Scripture and historic Christological orthodoxy, John Wesley revised the Thirty-nine Articles to remove its Calvinistic theological leanings and articulate an Arminian soteriology centered on unlimited atonement, prevenient grace, human free will, as well as conditional preservation.

Historical context and emergence

See also: Anglican Arminianism

James Arminius, Krzysztof Lubieniecki, c. 1705.

Wesleyan-Arminianism developed as an attempt to articulate Christian soteriology in direct contrast to the absolute predestinarian teachings associated with classical Calvinism. The broader theological movement of Arminianism originated in the Netherlands with Jacobus Arminius, who challenged Calvinist orthodoxy by defending human free will as being enabled and sustained by prevenient grace. In 1610, following the death of Arminius, his dedicated followers presented the Five Articles of Remonstrance to the States of Holland. These individuals were historically known as the Remonstrants, and they were led by Simon Episcopius.

John Wesley, George Romney, 1789.

Wesleyan theology, on the other hand, developed from the teachings of John Wesley, an English evangelist. Its theological principles are derived from his many publications, including his collected sermons, journal, abridgements of theological, devotional, and historical Christian works, and a variety of tracts and treatises on theological subjects. Subsequently, the two traditions have joined into a cohesive theological framework for the contemporary church.

In 1736, the Wesley brothers traveled to the Georgia colony in America as missionaries, but they returned discouraged by their experience there. Both subsequently had profound religious experiences, but John Wesley, in particular, was deeply influenced by the Moravian Christians, a pietistic group that contributed to his transformative Aldersgate experience in 1738. Although Methodism originated as a renewal movement within the Church of England to spread what Wesley called scriptural holiness across the land and although Wesley initially did not intend to form a separate denomination, Methodism eventually diverged into its own separate tradition. This distinct tradition emphasized "heart religion", particularly the experiential realities of the New Birth, personal holiness, and the assurance of the Holy Spirit.

During the 1770s, John Wesley vigorously defended Arminian doctrines in public controversies against prominent Calvinistic evangelicals in England. He was actively supported by his close associate John William Fletcher, who is now regarded as the systematic theologian of Wesleyan Methodism. In 1778, Wesley established the Arminian Magazine, thereby reinforcing the theological connection between Wesleyan theology and Arminian soteriology. While Arminianism historically faced significant institutional opposition and theological suppression in Europe, Wesley's opposition to Calvinism was more successful than Arminius's efforts had been. In the United States especially, Arminianism became a dominant soteriological position within Evangelical Protestantism, largely because it was spread through popular preaching during a series of Great Awakenings. Although Wesley did not draw his theology directly from the writings of Arminius himself, he adopted the label "Arminian" to distinguish the Evangelicalism of his followers from that of their Calvinist opponents.

To support his position, Wesley affirmed the doctrine of total depravity. Wesley, Fletcher, and Watson described the natural corruption resulting from Adam's fall in the darkest terms, much as Augustine, Luther, and Calvin had done. He also emphasized the universal scope of prevenient grace. Wesleyan Arminianism is regarded as a closely related development of Arminian theology, which incorporates evangelical teachings and the doctrine of Christian perfectionism. Wesleyan-Arminianism also places greater stress on the subjective experience of conversion and regeneration through the new birth. Accordingly, Methodist preaching places greater emphasis on the immediate and transformative work of the Holy Spirit in conversion, implying a stronger practical emphasis on evangelism.

Methodism also developed distinctive theological positions concerning the role of human agency in salvation. In the 1830s, during the Second Great Awakening, critics accused the Holiness Movement of Pelagian teaching. Consequently, detractors of Wesleyan theology have occasionally characterized the broader Wesleyan tradition in these terms. Mainstream Wesleyan theology, however, firmly rejected such charges, maintaining instead a distinctly Arminian soteriology centered on the absolute necessity of prevenient grace for any human response to salvation.

Core theological doctrines

Human nature, free will, and sin

See also: Christian views on sin

Wesleyan Methodist theology strongly teaches the foundational doctrine of human free will, affirming that God's unmerited grace dynamically restores human agency. This profound grace makes salvation attainable for every single person who comes into the world. If individuals are ultimately not saved, the fault lies entirely in their own willful refusal and stubborn rebellion.

A distinctive hallmark of Wesleyan theology is its precise definition of sin as a voluntary transgression of a currently known law of God. This concept was heavily influenced by historic church teachings, with Wesley famously aligning his views with Augustine to assert that every sin is fundamentally linked to human volition. This narrower, more precise definition of sin is a fundamental, unifying belief shared widely across modern Methodist denominations, including those aligned with the holiness movement. For example, the Wesleyan Holiness Association of Churches explicitly emphasizes that such willful, conscious sin firmly condemns a soul to eternal punishment. This severe punishment remains inevitable unless the sinner is mercifully pardoned by God through active repentance, deep confession, and personal faith.

Wesleyan Methodism carefully and consistently distinguishes between original sin, which refers to the deeply inherited corruption of human nature, and actual sin, which specifically comprises personal, conscious transgressions committed actively before regeneration. Actual sin is further bifurcated theologically into two distinct categories. The first is sin properly so called, which involves willful, conscious disobedience against God's known commands. The second category, sin improperly so called, accounts for natural human infirmities. These complex infirmities specifically include physical handicaps, profound ignorance, immaturity, forgetfulness, a lack of discernment, and poor communication skills. Wesley firmly maintained that involuntary mistakes do not constitute sin in the proper, theological sense. Consequently, Wesleyan doctrine powerfully affirms that believers can and must live absolutely free from outward, willful sin following regeneration (the first work of grace); through the second work of grace—entire sanctification, Christians are able to be made perfect in love and are freed from the sin nature of humanity, i.e. original sin.

Atonement and grace

See also: Arminianism

Wesleyan theology teaches the doctrine of unlimited atonement, holding that Christ died for all humanity.

Wesleyan theology firmly adheres to the historic doctrine of penal substitutionary atonement, yet it also expands this traditional view by integrating it with themes drawn from Christus Victor and insights from moral influence theories. Wesley held that Christ's voluntary sacrifice successfully satisfied divine justice, appeasing God's righteous wrath against human transgression while simultaneously breaking the oppressive power of Satan over fallen humanity. He viewed this victorious rescue from evil as an integral component of substitutionary atonement.

Wesleyans have also defended a distinct form of substitutionary atonement. In this view, reconciliation with God is based on forgiveness made possible through an atonement grounded in the governmental theory. In this approach, Jesus is not strictly punished in the place of human beings. Nevertheless, his sufferings constitute an expiation intended to satisfy divine justice. This universal provision of forgiveness is received through faith in God and repentance from sin.

Charles Wesley's iconic hymns frequently and beautifully combine these substitutionary motifs with the profound, transformative moral impact of divine love. Through these enduring hymns, he passionately invites the believer to enter mystically and participatively into the profound suffering and crucifixion of Christ.

"Vouchsafe us eyes of faith to see / The Man transfixed on Calvary, / To know thee, who thou art [...] Destroy the love of sin in me, / And get thyself the victory, / And bring me back to God [...] And lo! I come thy cross to share, / Echo thy sacrificial prayer, / And with my Saviour die."

In the administration of the Lord's Supper, the Methodist believer experiences this participatory dimension especially through the sacramental elements, which mystically transport them to the foot of the cross.

Wesleyans emphatically teach unlimited atonement, maintaining that Christ died a loving, propitiatory death for all human beings without exception. Regarding the fate of the unlearned, Methodist theology offers a notably inclusive and distinct perspective on grace. It affirms that infants, morally incapable persons, and individuals who have never heard the historical Gospel may nevertheless be graciously accepted by God. This acceptance is grounded entirely in the infinite merits of Christ, provided that these individuals respond faithfully to the natural light and grace they have received in their unique contexts.

Justification, regeneration, and the new birth

John Wesley open-air preaching to a crowd gathered at Epworth

In Wesleyan soteriology, the practical order of salvation systematically encompasses a deep conviction of sin, genuine repentance, and practical, life-changing restitution. These vital preparatory steps invariably lead the awakened soul to saving faith, divine justification, spiritual regeneration, and adoption. This profound initial salvation experience is then followed by a lifelong, dynamic process of progressive sanctification. Ultimately, this continuous progression aims toward the subsequent, higher experience of entire sanctification. God actively and universally extends prevenient grace to all people, a grace which serves to graciously restore human moral agency. This empowering, unmerited grace is precisely what enables individuals to freely respond to or reject divine salvation. This dynamic firmly establishes a clear and necessary framework of synergistic cooperation between God and humanity.

Justification is defined strictly as a judicial, declarative act of divine pardon, representing the complete forgiveness of sins. Through this gracious and unmerited act, the repentant soul is granted complete, liberating absolution from all past guilt. Regeneration, conversely, represents the profound and radical inward change wherein vibrant spiritual life is imparted directly to the believer. While justification specifically and legally confers imputed righteousness, sanctification powerfully and experientially conveys actual imparted righteousness. Through this ongoing process of impartation, the Holy Spirit actively and continuously works to restore the believer into the perfect, unblemished image of God.

Methodist doctrine insists that genuine, living saving faith inevitably yields tangible, visible good works in the world, and this natural fruit includes a steadfast and loving obedience to the overarching moral law of the Ten Commandments. Wesleyans assert that grace does not eliminate or invalidate the moral law. Rather, it empowers the believer to naturally fulfill it through active engagement in works of piety and works of mercy. Consequently, they teach that authentic faith simply cannot subsist without these outward, highly practical expressions of Christian Love. Within this theological tradition, justification remains entirely and constantly contingent upon continuing in a posture of faith and active obedience. A willful, sustained refusal to pursue holiness effectively and forfeits the believer's current state of grace. This ongoing, daily reliance on Christ for both initial faith and ultimate perseverance aligns Wesleyan soteriology very closely with the core concepts of Lordship salvation, emphasizing throughout that full, final salvation requires remaining rooted in a transformative, obedient relationship with God. This pursuit of holiness means that salvation not only involves ritual, but demands a fundamental change of heart and a completely different way of living.

The new birth constitutes the first major, dramatic work of grace in a believer's life, and this momentous spiritual event is marked simultaneously by the complete forgiveness of past sins, an inward spiritual regeneration, and a life-altering adoption into God's family. The Wesleyan tradition places primary emphasis on the new birth and personal holiness, viewing them as essential marks of genuine Christianity. Methodist preaching routinely emphasizes the vital, life-saving necessity of undergoing this profound spiritual transformation. Wesleyan theology holds that those truly born of God no longer commit willful, habitual sin as a normalized pattern of life. Nevertheless, newly justified believers remain conscious that corrupt, natural tendencies to depart from God still persist within their unpurified hearts. Should a believer fall into willful sin after regeneration, full spiritual restoration remains entirely possible. This process of recovery strictly requires sincere repentance, open confession, and a renewed, humble dependence on the forgiving grace of Christ.

Entire sanctification

Wesleyan theology teaches a second distinct work of grace in the life of the believer. This experience is widely termed entire sanctification or Christian perfection (cf. baptism with the Holy Spirit). The tradition upholds entire sanctification, meaning the purification of the heart so that it is made perfect in love, as the central deposit of the Methodist heritage. It acts as a divine intervention that cleanses the believer from original sin and eradicates the carnal nature. As a result, it fills the soul with love toward God and humanity, leaving no room for contrary affections. Through entire sanctification, Wesleyan Methodist doctrine teaches that the believer is empowered for service to God as the heart is no longer divided. John Wesley defined the nature of this experience directly:

"Entire sanctification, or Christian perfection, is neither more nor less than pure love; love expelling sin, and governing both the heart and life of a child of God. The Refiner's fire purges out all that is contrary to love."

Wesley taught that entire sanctification is received instantaneously by faith, though it is both preceded and followed by a path of growth in grace. Prior to receiving this grace, the believer is required to make a consecration of their life to God. This human side of sanctification involves surrendering all personal ambitions and selfish desires to the Lord. While entire sanctification frees the Christian from willful sin and the internal carnal mind, it does not render a person completely infallible. They remain entirely subject to natural human infirmities, honest cognitive errors, and external temptations throughout their earthly life.

Assurance and the witness of the Spirit

John Wesley memorial Aldersgate, 2016.

Wesleyans maintain that believers can enjoy an assurance of faith directly through the witness of the Spirit. This idea is based on the apostle Paul's teaching in the Epistle to the Romans, identifying a testimony assuring the believer of their adoption as a child of God. This presence confirms the realities of both initial justification and entire sanctification. The tradition also encourages a growth in grace and the assurance of the Holy Spirit. Wesley himself experienced this assurance during his Aldersgate encounter on 24 May 1738. He recorded feeling his heart strangely warmed and receiving the assurance that Christ had taken away his sins. This historical experience underscores that true religion is about an active relationship with God marked by holy living.

Conditional security and apostasy

Main article: Conditional preservation of the saints

Wesleyan theology affirms the doctrine of conditional preservation of the saints, commonly known in evangelical circles as conditional security. John Wesley defended this position in his 1751 treatise Serious Thoughts Upon the Perseverance of the Saints. He argued that believers remain secure in Christ only so long as they continue in faith and obedience. A Christian may commit apostasy by abandoning their faith, making a shipwreck of their calling. Additionally, a believer can fall from grace by returning to a life of unconfessed sin. Wesleyan framework generally recognizes that humans can lose and regain their state of grace. A backslider who has fallen from grace is not without hope, and he/she can be restored through repentance, confession, and faith in Jesus Christ. The backslidden individual would need to seek the first work of grace (the new birth) and second work of grace (entire sanctification) again, having lost these through willful sin.

Covenant theology

Main article: Covenant theology

Methodism retains the historical framework of classical covenant theology, but it adapted this framework to a more Arminian perspective by eliminating its Reformed predestinarian assumptions. In Wesleyan covenant theology, the covenant of works terminated with the fall of Adam and Eve, while the covenant of grace was inaugurated for all of humanity. Consequently, all human beings are born under the universal provisions of the covenant of grace. The covenant of grace was administered through promises, sacrifices, and circumcision in the patriarchal era. It continued through the Mosaic law, and finally through the specific sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper under the modern Gospel dispensation.

Sources of authority and ecclesiology

The Wesleyan Quadrilateral

Further information: Wesleyan Quadrilateral and Prima scriptura

Wesleyan theology recognizes four sources of theological authority. These sources are structured in what 20th-century scholar Albert Outler designated as the Wesleyan Quadrilateral: Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. The tradition adheres to prima scriptura, holding that the Bible is the primary authority for all Christian doctrine and salvation.

In this methodological approach, tradition serves to illumine Scripture. Concurrently, human reason enables the interpretation of theological concepts. Finally, Christian experience vitalizes and confirms biblical truth directly in the believer's life. Wesleyan theology also affirms the ancient ecumenical creeds and the historic Christological orthodoxy of the first five centuries of church history. In his revision of the Anglican Thirty-nine Articles for the American church, Wesley established the twenty-five Articles of Religion. During this process, he eliminated distinctively Calvinistic tenets regarding unconditional election, the perseverance of the saints, and the limitation of divine grace.

Ecclesiology, holy orders, and evangelism

Camp meeting of the Methodists in N. America, M. Dubourg, 1819.

Methodists affirm a belief in the one holy catholic and apostolic Church, and they regard their own denominations as branches of Christ's broader universal church. Initially, Wesley did not intend to found a new denomination, but established Methodist societies as a renewal movement within the Church of England, functioning as a church within a church. Furthermore, John Wesley maintained that God had a missional purpose in raising up the Methodist movement, noting that its development was no human endeavor but the work of God that would be preserved. He identified the propagation of the doctrine of entire sanctification as the movement's principal theological deposit, holding that spreading this message of scriptural holiness was the reason the Methodists existed as a people in the world.

Regarding holy orders, Wesley held that bishops and presbyters constitute a single clerical order possessing ministerial authority to ordain. To support this view, he cited the practice of the Church of Alexandria. He also found justification for this view within the New Testament scriptures. Following the American Revolutionary War, the Bishop of London refused to ordain clergy for the growing Methodist societies in North America. This created a sacramental deprivation, as American Methodists could no longer receive Baptism or the Lord's Supper. Faced with this emergency, Wesley exercised his own presbyteral authority in 1784. Relying on the Alexandrian precedent, he ordained Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Vasey as presbyters. Additionally, he consecrated Thomas Coke as a general superintendent for the ministry in the United States.

Stained glass of three Methodist ministers, Charles Wesley, John Wesley, and Francis Asbury, at Lake Junaluska

Due to this trajectory, Methodist episcopacy is understood as a consecrated office of general superintendency. It is not viewed as a third order of ministry separate from the presbyterate. Therefore, Methodists recognize other forms of ordination and ecclesiastical structures alongside their own system. Methodism locates apostolic succession primarily in the continuity of apostolic doctrine, mission, and spiritual life, rather than relying on a tactile succession of bishops.

Furthermore, Methodism has placed an emphasis on evangelism. To facilitate this mission, Wesley authorized laymen to serve as local preachers, allowing the movement to expand beyond the limitations of the ordained clergy. This commitment was outworked through door-to-door preaching and open-air preaching campaigns. The movement also relied on the production and distribution of religious literature and Gospel tracts to reach the masses. To ensure that this evangelism resulted in continuous spiritual growth, converts were integrated into a structure of classes and bands, providing pastoral care and accountability.

Sacraments and means of grace

Further information: Means of grace and Sacrament

Baptism

A baptistry in a Methodist church

Methodist theology recognizes two primary, dominical sacraments of the Gospel: Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism formally serves as the sacrament of initiation into the visible Church. Theologically, it operates as a sign of inward regeneration and a seal of the covenant of grace. In Wesleyan covenant theology, baptism corresponds to the Old Testament rite of circumcision, confirming God's promises to the believer. Methodists practice both infant baptism and believer's baptism as valid expressions of faith. They recognize three modes of baptism, immersion, pouring (affusion), and sprinkling (aspersion), as valid when administered in the Trinitarian formula. However, the regenerating grace signified in baptism requires subsequent repentance and faith for salvation.

Real presence in the Lord's Supper

Wesleyan theology affirms the real spiritual presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist. Followers of the tradition have affirmed that the sacrament of the Lord's Supper is an instrumental means of grace through which the real presence of Christ is communicated to the believer. Methodism inherited the Reformed view of the Lord's Supper through the Twenty-five Articles. Article XVIII posits a spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist, noting that the body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten only after a heavenly and spiritual manner. Methodists assert that Jesus is spiritually present, and that the means of his presence is a holy mystery. The agent of this communication is the Holy Spirit.

A United Methodist minister celebrating the Holy Eucharist.

In particular, Methodists reject the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, as outlined in the Articles of Religion. Similarly, denominations such as the Primitive Methodist Church discard theories of physical, localized presence such as the Lollardist doctrine of consubstantiation. Instead, Wesleyan traditions prefer to leave the metaphysical mode of Christ's presence undefined. The Church of the Nazarene reflects this perspective by declaring that the sacrament is a means of grace where Christ is present by the Spirit.

Historically, the Lord's Supper is regarded as a converting and sanctifying ordinance. In liturgical practice, it operates as a dynamic anamnesis. The United Methodist Church affirms this, recognizing anamnesis as a re-presentation of past gracious acts of God. This theology is illustrated in the language of the United Methodist Communion Liturgy, where the epiclesis of the Great Thanksgiving involves the minister praying over the elements for the Holy Spirit to transform them for the congregation. The congregation also participates in this mystery through song, such as Charles Wesley's hymn Come Sinners to the Gospel Feast inviting sinners to the gospel feast to partake of the flesh and blood of Christ. The belief is that believers partake of Christ's body and blood in a spiritual manner. The feature of the Methodist doctrine is that the manifestation remains a mystery, maintaining the focus that Christ is truly present.

Confession, lovefeasts, and feetwashing

Methodist theology teaches that the Christian life should be characterized by holy living, free from sin. However, for individuals who fall into sin or backslide, Wesleyan doctrine holds that these persons should confess the problem and restore their relationship with God. Methodists practice confession of their sin to God through prayer.

The private confession of sins to a pastor is defined by the Articles of Religion as a practice not to be counted for sacraments of the Gospel, also known as the five lesser sacraments. John Wesley assumed the validity of Anglican practice in his day as reflected in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. He stated that confession to a spiritual guide is of use for disburdening the conscience and as a help to repentance. Additionally, per the recommendation of Wesley, Methodist class meetings, as well as penitent bands, met weekly in order to confess sins to one another.

Lovefeasts (in which bread and the loving-cup are shared between members of the congregation) are a means of grace and a converting ordinance that John Wesley believed to be an apostolic institution. An account from July 1776 expounded on the fact that people experienced entire sanctification at a Lovefeast.

In certain Methodist connexions, such as the Missionary Methodist Church and the New Congregational Methodist Church, feetwashing is practiced at the time that the Lord's Supper is celebrated. The Missionary Methodist Church states this in its Book of Discipline. In congregations of the Global Methodist Church and United Methodist Church that are descended from the Evangelical United Brethren Church, feetwashing is practiced when the Lord's Supper is celebrated. In other connexions such as the Free Methodist Church, feetwashing is practiced on Maundy Thursday.

Christian life and ethical practice

Prayer

Methodism utilizes extemporaneous prayer alongside liturgical forms. Many Methodist churches devote a portion of their Sunday evening service and mid-week Wednesday evening prayer meeting to having congregants share their prayer requests, in addition to hearing personal testimonies about their faith and experiences in living the Christian life. After listening to various members of the congregation share their salvation testimonies, voice their prayer requests and offer praise reports, congregants often kneel for intercessory prayer.

Early Methodism was known for its observance of canonical hours of prayer. It inherited from its Anglican patrimony the rubrics of reciting the Daily Office, which Methodist Christians were expected to pray. The first prayer book of Methodism, The Sunday Service of the Methodists with other occasional Services thus included the canonical hours of both Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer; these services were observed everyday in early Christianity, though on the Lord's Day, worship included the Eucharist. Later Methodist liturgical books, such as The Methodist Worship Book (1999) provide for Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer to be prayed daily; the United Methodist Church encourages its communicants to pray the canonical hours as an essential practice of being a disciple of Jesus. Some Methodist religious orders publish the Daily Office to be used for that community, for example, The Book of Offices and Services of The Order of Saint Luke contains the canonical hours to be prayed traditionally at seven fixed prayer times: Lauds (6 am), Terce (9 am), Sext (12 pm), None (3 pm), Vespers (6 pm), Compline (9 pm) and Vigil (12 am). Some Methodist congregations offer daily Morning Prayer.

Outward holiness

Main article: Outward holiness

Further information: Works of Piety, Works of mercy § In Methodism, and Penitent band

Early Methodists wore plain dress, with Methodist clergy condemning costly clothing. John Wesley recommended that Methodists annually read his thoughts On Dress. In that sermon, John Wesley expressed his desire for Methodists to maintain this lifestyle. The 1858 Discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist Connection thus stated that they would enjoin plain dress. Peter Cartwright, a Methodist revivalist, stated that in addition to wearing plain dress, the early Methodists distinguished themselves from other members of society by fasting on Fridays, abstaining from alcohol, and devoutly observing the Sabbath. Methodist circuit riders were known for practicing the spiritual discipline of mortifying the flesh. The early Methodists did not participate in, and condemned, worldly habits.

Over time, many of these practices were relaxed in mainline Methodism, although practices such as teetotalism and fasting are encouraged, in addition to the prohibition of gambling. Denominations of the conservative holiness movement, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Evangelical Wesleyan Church, continue to reflect the spirit of the historic Methodist practice of wearing plain dress. The Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches, which continues to observe the ordinance of women's headcovering, stipulates renouncing vain pomp and glory and adorning oneself with modest attire. The General Rules of the Methodist Church in America, which are among the doctrinal standards of many Methodist Churches, promote first-day Sabbatarianism as they require attending upon all the ordinances of God including the public worship of God and prohibit profaning the day of the Lord.

Teetotalism

Methodist Temperance Magazine, a Wesleyan Methodist publication in Cardiff, Wales

John Wesley laid foundations for Methodism's call to abstain from beverage alcohol and its warnings about the use of drugs. He referred to liquors as poison and condemned those who sold it of leading people to hell. Methodist Churches are aligned with the temperance movement and its call for teetotalism. In Great Britain, both Wesleyan Methodists and Primitive Methodists championed the cause of temperance. The Methodist Board of Temperance, Prohibition, and Public Morals was later established in the United States to further the movement.

The 2014 Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection summarizes the practice of Methodists regarding their requirement of abstinence from alcohol and other drugs.

Fasting

Fasting is considered one of the works of piety. Methodism's principal liturgical book The Sunday Service of the Methodists, as well as The Directions Given to Band Societies by John Wesley, mandate fasting and abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year in remembrance of the crucifixion of Jesus. Wesley himself also kept the Eucharistic fast, fasting before receiving Holy Communion, and asked other Methodist Christians to do the same.

Law and Gospel

Further information: Ten Commandments § Methodist

John Wesley admonished Methodist preachers to emphasize both the Law and the Gospel. Methodism makes a distinction between the ceremonial law and the moral law that is the Ten Commandments given to Moses. In Methodist Christianity, the moral law is grounded in eternity. In contradistinction to the teaching of the Lutheran Churches, the Methodist Churches bring the Law and the Gospel together. John Wesley, the father of the Methodist tradition taught that there is no contrariety at all between the law and the gospel.

Sunday Sabbatarianism

The sign of this Wesleyan Methodist church displays the times for the Sunday morning service of worship and Sunday evening service of worship, consistent with historical First-day Sabbatarian doctrine.

Main article: Sabbatarianism § Methodist Churches

Further information: Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy § Methodist views

The early Methodists were known for keeping the Sabbath day. They regarded keeping the Lord's Day as a duty. The General Rules of the Methodist Church require attending upon all the ordinances of God and prohibit profaning the day of the Lord. The Sunday Sabbatarian practices of the earlier Wesleyan Methodist Church in Great Britain are described by Jonathan Crowther in A Portraiture of Methodism. Methodist churches have historically observed the Lord's Day devoutly with a morning service of worship, along with an evening service of worship.

Eschatology and final destiny

Eschatology

John Wesley described his eschatological views on the Book of Revelation in his Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament (1755). He struggled with how to interpret the middle of the book which describes heavenly and earthy conflict in very symbolic language. He relied heavily on the works of German theologian Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752) for a mathematical interpretation of the numbers in the book to find a correspondence between church history and the events described in Revelation. For example, by Wesley's calculations, using Bengel's mathematical key, the story of the woman in the wilderness in Revelation 12 was the story of the Christian church in two overlapping periods of church history (847-1524 CE and 1058-1836 CE). Wesley's primary concern, however, was not so much with prophecy or chronology, but rather with how to use Revelation to help believers have strength in times of trial.

Four Last Things

Further information: Last Judgment § Anglicanism and Methodism, and Christian burial § Methodist funeral

The Last Judgment determines the final destiny of souls.

With respect to the four last things, Wesleyan theology affirms the belief in Hades, the intermediate state of souls between death and the general resurrection, which is divided into Paradise for the righteous and Gehenna for the wicked. After the general judgment, Hades will be abolished. John Wesley made a distinction between hell as the receptacle of the damned and Hades as the receptacle of all separate spirits, and also between paradise as the antechamber of heaven and heaven itself. The dead will remain in Hades until the Day of Judgment when all will be bodily resurrected and stand before Christ as judge. After the Judgment, the Righteous will go to their eternal reward in Heaven and the Damned will depart to Hell. The Evangelical Methodist Church Discipline states that everyone that has a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ our Lord on departing from this life, goes to be in felicity with Him, and will share the eternal glories of His everlasting Kingdom; the fuller rewards and the greater glories, being reserved until the final Judgment. It also notes that while the saint goes from the judgment to enjoy eternal bliss, the impenitent sinner is turned away into everlasting condemnation, punishment and misery. Wesley stated that he believed it to be a duty to observe, to pray for the Faithful Departed. He taught the propriety of Praying for the Dead, practised it himself, provided Forms that others might. In a joint statement with the Catholic Church in England and Wales, the Methodist Church of Great Britain affirmed that Methodists who pray for the dead thereby commend them to the continuing mercy of God.

Churches upholding Wesleyan theology

Main article: List of Methodist denominations

Memorial to John Wesley and Charles Wesley in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford

Methodism began as a reform movement within the Church of England, and, for a while, it remained as such. The movement separated itself from its mother church and became known as the Methodist Episcopal Church in America and the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Britain (as distinguished from Calvinistic Methodism). Many divisions occurred within the Methodist Episcopal Church in the 19th century, mostly over attitudes towards slavery, though doctrinally, opposition to slavery is one of the works of mercy. Some of these schisms healed in the early 20th century, and many of the splinter Methodist groups came together by 1939 to form the Methodist Church. In 1968, the Methodist Church joined with the Radical Pietist Evangelical United Brethren Church to form The United Methodist Church, the largest Methodist church in America. Other groups include the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, the Congregational Methodist Church, the Evangelical Methodist Church, the Free Methodist Church, the Global Methodist Church, the Holiness Methodist Church, the Methodist Protestant Church, the Primitive Methodist Church, and the Southern Methodist Church. There are also various Independent Methodist associations, such as the Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches.

In 19th-century America, a dissension arose over the nature of entire sanctification. Those who believed that entire sanctification could occur both instantaneously or could result from progressive sanctification culminating in Christian perfection, remained within the mainline Methodist Churches; others, however, emphasized the instantaneous nature of entire sanctification. The latter line of thought came to be known as the holiness movement and while many of those who supported it remained in mainline Methodism, such as at Asbury Theological Seminary. Others began the various holiness churches. Including the Free Methodist Church, Church of God (Holiness), the Church of God (Anderson), the Churches of Christ in Christian Union, and the Wesleyan Methodist Church, which later merged with the Pilgrim Holiness Church to form the Wesleyan Church, which is present today. Other holiness groups, which also rejected the competing Pentecostal movement, merged to form the Church of the Nazarene. The Salvation Army is another Wesleyan-Holiness group which traces its roots to early Methodism. The Salvation Army's founders Catherine and William Booth founded the organization to stress evangelism and social action when William was a minister in the Methodist Reform Church.

The conservative holiness movement, including denominations such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, Evangelical Methodist Church Conference, Evangelical Wesleyan Church and Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches, emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries to herald many of the strict standards of primitive Methodism, including outward holiness, plain dress, and temperance. A modified form of Wesleyan theology became the basis for other distinct denominations as well, for example the Holiness Pentecostal movement launched by William J. Seymour and Charles Parham, represented by denominations such as the Apostolic Faith Church and International Pentecostal Holiness Church. These traditions incorporate the Wesleyan doctrine of a second work of grace prior to their belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit.

Relationship with other religions

Further information: Islam and Christianity

Wesley assumed the superiority of Christianity vis-à-vis to Islam, based on his commitment to the biblical revelation as "the book of God". His theological interpretation of Christianity was seeking its imperative rather than considering other Abrahamic and Eastern religions to be equal. He regarded the righteous lifestyles of Muslims as an "ox goad" to prick the collective Christian conscience. Although his Letter to a Roman Catholic (1749), a conciliatory appeal for understanding and shared Christian faith, is sometimes seen as an act of religious tolerance, Wesley remained rooted in the anti-Catholicism characteristic of 18th-century England.

See also

• Christian perfection
• Saints in Methodism

Notes and references

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Further reading

• McCall, Thomas; Vickers, Jason (2026). Love Divine: A Wesleyan Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
• Noble, Thomas A. (2023). Christian Theology. Vol. 1. Kansas City: The Foundry.
• Oden, Thomas C. (2009). Classic Christianity: A Systematic Theology. New York: HarperOne.
• Oswalt, John, ed. (2024). Holy Love: A Wesleyan Systematic Theology. Vol. 1. Wilmore, KY: Francis Asbury Press.
• Oswalt, John, ed. (2024). Holy Love: A Wesleyan Systematic Theology. Vol. 2. Wilmore, KY: Francis Asbury Press.
• Oswalt, John, ed. (2026). Holy Love: A Wesleyan Systematic Theology. Vol. 3. Wilmore, KY: Francis Asbury Press.