ECMA-262, 11th edition, June 2020
ECMAScript® 2020 Language Specification

Contributing to this Specification

This specification is developed on GitHub with the help of the ECMAScript community. There are a number of ways to contribute to the development of this specification:

Refer to the colophon for more information on how this document is created.

About this Specification

This document at https://tc39.es/ecma262/ is the most accurate and up-to-date ECMAScript specification. It contains the content of the most recent yearly snapshot plus any finished proposals (those that have reached Stage 4 in the proposal process and thus are implemented in several implementations and will be in the next practical revision) since that snapshot was taken.

Introduction

This Ecma Standard defines the ECMAScript 2020 Language. It is the eleventh edition of the ECMAScript Language Specification. Since publication of the first edition in 1997, ECMAScript has grown to be one of the world's most widely used general-purpose programming languages. It is best known as the language embedded in web browsers but has also been widely adopted for server and embedded applications.

ECMAScript is based on several originating technologies, the most well-known being JavaScript (Netscape) and JScript (Microsoft). The language was invented by Brendan Eich at Netscape and first appeared in that company's Navigator 2.0 browser. It has appeared in all subsequent browsers from Netscape and in all browsers from Microsoft starting with Internet Explorer 3.0.

The development of the ECMAScript Language Specification started in November 1996. The first edition of this Ecma Standard was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of June 1997.

That Ecma Standard was submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure, and approved as international standard ISO/IEC 16262, in April 1998. The Ecma General Assembly of June 1998 approved the second edition of ECMA-262 to keep it fully aligned with ISO/IEC 16262. Changes between the first and the second edition are editorial in nature.

The third edition of the Standard introduced powerful regular expressions, better string handling, new control statements, try/catch exception handling, tighter definition of errors, formatting for numeric output and minor changes in anticipation of future language growth. The third edition of the ECMAScript standard was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of December 1999 and published as ISO/IEC 16262:2002 in June 2002.

After publication of the third edition, ECMAScript achieved massive adoption in conjunction with the World Wide Web where it has become the programming language that is supported by essentially all web browsers. Significant work was done to develop a fourth edition of ECMAScript. However, that work was not completed and not published as the fourth edition of ECMAScript but some of it was incorporated into the development of the sixth edition.

The fifth edition of ECMAScript (published as ECMA-262 5th edition) codified de facto interpretations of the language specification that have become common among browser implementations and added support for new features that had emerged since the publication of the third edition. Such features include accessor properties, reflective creation and inspection of objects, program control of property attributes, additional array manipulation functions, support for the JSON object encoding format, and a strict mode that provides enhanced error checking and program security. The fifth edition was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of December 2009.

The fifth edition was submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1 for adoption under the fast-track procedure, and approved as international standard ISO/IEC 16262:2011. Edition 5.1 of the ECMAScript Standard incorporated minor corrections and is the same text as ISO/IEC 16262:2011. The 5.1 Edition was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly of June 2011.

Focused development of the sixth edition started in 2009, as the fifth edition was being prepared for publication. However, this was preceded by significant experimentation and language enhancement design efforts dating to the publication of the third edition in 1999. In a very real sense, the completion of the sixth edition is the culmination of a fifteen year effort. The goals for this edition included providing better support for large applications, library creation, and for use of ECMAScript as a compilation target for other languages. Some of its major enhancements included modules, class declarations, lexical block scoping, iterators and generators, promises for asynchronous programming, destructuring patterns, and proper tail calls. The ECMAScript library of built-ins was expanded to support additional data abstractions including maps, sets, and arrays of binary numeric values as well as additional support for Unicode supplemental characters in strings and regular expressions. The built-ins were also made extensible via subclassing. The sixth edition provides the foundation for regular, incremental language and library enhancements. The sixth edition was adopted by the General Assembly of June 2015.

ECMAScript 2016 was the first ECMAScript edition released under Ecma TC39's new yearly release cadence and open development process. A plain-text source document was built from the ECMAScript 2015 source document to serve as the base for further development entirely on GitHub. Over the year of this standard's development, hundreds of pull requests and issues were filed representing thousands of bug fixes, editorial fixes and other improvements. Additionally, numerous software tools were developed to aid in this effort including Ecmarkup, Ecmarkdown, and Grammarkdown. ES2016 also included support for a new exponentiation operator and adds a new method to Array.prototype called includes.

ECMAScript 2017 introduced Async Functions, Shared Memory, and Atomics along with smaller language and library enhancements, bug fixes, and editorial updates. Async functions improve the asynchronous programming experience by providing syntax for promise-returning functions. Shared Memory and Atomics introduce a new memory model that allows multi-agent programs to communicate using atomic operations that ensure a well-defined execution order even on parallel CPUs. It also included new static methods on Object: Object.values, Object.entries, and Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors.

ECMAScript 2018 introduced support for asynchronous iteration via the AsyncIterator protocol and async generators. It also included four new regular expression features: the dotAll flag, named capture groups, Unicode property escapes, and look-behind assertions. Lastly it included object rest and spread properties.

ECMAScript 2019 introduced a few new built-in functions: flat and flatMap on Array.prototype for flattening arrays, Object.fromEntries for directly turning the return value of Object.entries into a new Object, and trimStart and trimEnd on String.prototype as better-named alternatives to the widely implemented but non-standard String.prototype.trimLeft and trimRight built-ins. In addition, it included a few minor updates to syntax and semantics. Updated syntax included optional catch binding parameters and allowing U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) and U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) in string literals to align with JSON. Other updates included requiring that Array.prototype.sort be a stable sort, requiring that JSON.stringify return well-formed UTF-8 regardless of input, and clarifying Function.prototype.toString by requiring that it either return the corresponding original source text or a standard placeholder.

This specification, the 11th edition, introduces the matchAll method for Strings, to produce an iterator for all match objects generated by a global regular expression; import(), a syntax to asynchronously import Modules with a dynamic specifier; BigInt, a new number primitive for working with arbitrary precision integers; Promise.allSettled, a new Promise combinator that does not short-circuit; globalThis, a universal way to access the global this value; dedicated export * as ns from 'module' syntax for use within modules; increased standardization of for-in enumeration order; import.meta, a host-populated object available in Modules that may contain contextual information about the Module; as well as adding two new syntax features to improve working with “nullish” values (null or undefined): nullish coalescing, a value selection operator; and optional chaining, a property access and function invocation operator that short-circuits if the value to access/invoke is nullish.

Dozens of individuals representing many organizations have made very significant contributions within Ecma TC39 to the development of this edition and to the prior editions. In addition, a vibrant community has emerged supporting TC39's ECMAScript efforts. This community has reviewed numerous drafts, filed thousands of bug reports, performed implementation experiments, contributed test suites, and educated the world-wide developer community about ECMAScript. Unfortunately, it is impossible to identify and acknowledge every person and organization who has contributed to this effort.

Allen Wirfs-Brock
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 6th Edition

Brian Terlson
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 7th through 10th Editions

Jordan Harband
ECMA-262, Project Editor, 10th through 11th Editions

1 Scope

This Standard defines the ECMAScript 2020 general-purpose programming language.

2 Conformance

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must provide and support all the types, values, objects, properties, functions, and program syntax and semantics described in this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must interpret source text input in conformance with the latest version of the Unicode Standard and ISO/IEC 10646.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript that provides an application programming interface (API) that supports programs that need to adapt to the linguistic and cultural conventions used by different human languages and countries must implement the interface defined by the most recent edition of ECMA-402 that is compatible with this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may provide additional types, values, objects, properties, and functions beyond those described in this specification. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript may provide properties not described in this specification, and values for those properties, for objects that are described in this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript may support program and regular expression syntax not described in this specification. In particular, a conforming implementation of ECMAScript may support program syntax that makes use of any “future reserved words” noted in subclause 11.6.2 of this specification.

A conforming implementation of ECMAScript must not implement any extension that is listed as a Forbidden Extension in subclause 16.1.

3 Normative References

The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.

ISO/IEC 10646 Information Technology — Universal Multiple-Octet Coded Character Set (UCS) plus Amendment 1:2005, Amendment 2:2006, Amendment 3:2008, and Amendment 4:2008, plus additional amendments and corrigenda, or successor

ECMA-402, ECMAScript 2015 Internationalization API Specification.
https://www.ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-402/

ECMA-404, The JSON Data Interchange Format.
https://www.ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/

4 Overview

This section contains a non-normative overview of the ECMAScript language.

ECMAScript is an object-oriented programming language for performing computations and manipulating computational objects within a host environment. ECMAScript as defined here is not intended to be computationally self-sufficient; indeed, there are no provisions in this specification for input of external data or output of computed results. Instead, it is expected that the computational environment of an ECMAScript program will provide not only the objects and other facilities described in this specification but also certain environment-specific objects, whose description and behaviour are beyond the scope of this specification except to indicate that they may provide certain properties that can be accessed and certain functions that can be called from an ECMAScript program.

ECMAScript was originally designed to be used as a scripting language, but has become widely used as a general-purpose programming language. A scripting language is a programming language that is used to manipulate, customize, and automate the facilities of an existing system. In such systems, useful functionality is already available through a user interface, and the scripting language is a mechanism for exposing that functionality to program control. In this way, the existing system is said to provide a host environment of objects and facilities, which completes the capabilities of the scripting language. A scripting language is intended for use by both professional and non-professional programmers.

ECMAScript was originally designed to be a Web scripting language, providing a mechanism to enliven Web pages in browsers and to perform server computation as part of a Web-based client-server architecture. ECMAScript is now used to provide core scripting capabilities for a variety of host environments. Therefore the core language is specified in this document apart from any particular host environment.

ECMAScript usage has moved beyond simple scripting and it is now used for the full spectrum of programming tasks in many different environments and scales. As the usage of ECMAScript has expanded, so have the features and facilities it provides. ECMAScript is now a fully featured general-purpose programming language.

Some of the facilities of ECMAScript are similar to those used in other programming languages; in particular C, Java™, Self, and Scheme as described in:

ISO/IEC 9899:1996, Programming Languages — C.

Gosling, James, Bill Joy and Guy Steele. The Java™ Language Specification. Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1996.

Ungar, David, and Smith, Randall B. Self: The Power of Simplicity. OOPSLA '87 Conference Proceedings, pp. 227-241, Orlando, FL, October 1987.

IEEE Standard for the Scheme Programming Language. IEEE Std 1178-1990.

4.1 Web Scripting

A web browser provides an ECMAScript host environment for client-side computation including, for instance, objects that represent windows, menus, pop-ups, dialog boxes, text areas, anchors, frames, history, cookies, and input/output. Further, the host environment provides a means to attach scripting code to events such as change of focus, page and image loading, unloading, error and abort, selection, form submission, and mouse actions. Scripting code appears within the HTML and the displayed page is a combination of user interface elements and fixed and computed text and images. The scripting code is reactive to user interaction, and there is no need for a main program.

A web server provides a different host environment for server-side computation including objects representing requests, clients, and files; and mechanisms to lock and share data. By using browser-side and server-side scripting together, it is possible to distribute computation between the client and server while providing a customized user interface for a Web-based application.

Each Web browser and server that supports ECMAScript supplies its own host environment, completing the ECMAScript execution environment.

4.2 ECMAScript Overview

The following is an informal overview of ECMAScript—not all parts of the language are described. This overview is not part of the standard proper.

ECMAScript is object-based: basic language and host facilities are provided by objects, and an ECMAScript program is a cluster of communicating objects. In ECMAScript, an object is a collection of zero or more properties each with attributes that determine how each property can be used—for example, when the Writable attribute for a property is set to false, any attempt by executed ECMAScript code to assign a different value to the property fails. Properties are containers that hold other objects, primitive values, or functions. A primitive value is a member of one of the following built-in types: Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, BigInt, String, and Symbol; an object is a member of the built-in type Object; and a function is a callable object. A function that is associated with an object via a property is called a method.

ECMAScript defines a collection of built-in objects that round out the definition of ECMAScript entities. These built-in objects include the global object; objects that are fundamental to the runtime semantics of the language including Object, Function, Boolean, Symbol, and various Error objects; objects that represent and manipulate numeric values including Math, Number, and Date; the text processing objects String and RegExp; objects that are indexed collections of values including Array and nine different kinds of Typed Arrays whose elements all have a specific numeric data representation; keyed collections including Map and Set objects; objects supporting structured data including the JSON object, ArrayBuffer, SharedArrayBuffer, and DataView; objects supporting control abstractions including generator functions and Promise objects; and reflection objects including Proxy and Reflect.

ECMAScript also defines a set of built-in operators. ECMAScript operators include various unary operations, multiplicative operators, additive operators, bitwise shift operators, relational operators, equality operators, binary bitwise operators, binary logical operators, assignment operators, and the comma operator.

Large ECMAScript programs are supported by modules which allow a program to be divided into multiple sequences of statements and declarations. Each module explicitly identifies declarations it uses that need to be provided by other modules and which of its declarations are available for use by other modules.

ECMAScript syntax intentionally resembles Java syntax. ECMAScript syntax is relaxed to enable it to serve as an easy-to-use scripting language. For example, a variable is not required to have its type declared nor are types associated with properties, and defined functions are not required to have their declarations appear textually before calls to them.

4.2.1 Objects

Even though ECMAScript includes syntax for class definitions, ECMAScript objects are not fundamentally class-based such as those in C++, Smalltalk, or Java. Instead objects may be created in various ways including via a literal notation or via constructors which create objects and then execute code that initializes all or part of them by assigning initial values to their properties. Each constructor is a function that has a property named "prototype" that is used to implement prototype-based inheritance and shared properties. Objects are created by using constructors in new expressions; for example, new Date(2009, 11) creates a new Date object. Invoking a constructor without using new has consequences that depend on the constructor. For example, Date() produces a string representation of the current date and time rather than an object.

Every object created by a constructor has an implicit reference (called the object's prototype) to the value of its constructor's "prototype" property. Furthermore, a prototype may have a non-null implicit reference to its prototype, and so on; this is called the prototype chain. When a reference is made to a property in an object, that reference is to the property of that name in the first object in the prototype chain that contains a property of that name. In other words, first the object mentioned directly is examined for such a property; if that object contains the named property, that is the property to which the reference refers; if that object does not contain the named property, the prototype for that object is examined next; and so on.

emu-figure id="figure-1" caption="Object/Prototype Relationships">
Figure 1: Object/Prototype Relationships
An image of lots of boxes and arrows.

In a class-based object-oriented language, in general, state is carried by instances, methods are carried by classes, and inheritance is only of structure and behaviour. In ECMAScript, the state and methods are carried by objects, while structure, behaviour, and state are all inherited.

All objects that do not directly contain a particular property that their prototype contains share that property and its value. Figure 1 illustrates this:

CF is a constructor (and also an object). Five objects have been created by using new expressions: cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5. Each of these objects contains properties named "q1" and "q2". The dashed lines represent the implicit prototype relationship; so, for example, cf3's prototype is CFp. The constructor, CF, has two properties itself, named "P1" and "P2", which are not visible to CFp, cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, or cf5. The property named "CFP1" in CFp is shared by cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5 (but not by CF), as are any properties found in CFp's implicit prototype chain that are not named "q1", "q2", or "CFP1". Notice that there is no implicit prototype link between CF and CFp.

Unlike most class-based object languages, properties can be added to objects dynamically by assigning values to them. That is, constructors are not required to name or assign values to all or any of the constructed object's properties. In the above diagram, one could add a new shared property for cf1, cf2, cf3, cf4, and cf5 by assigning a new value to the property in CFp.

Although ECMAScript objects are not inherently class-based, it is often convenient to define class-like abstractions based upon a common pattern of constructor functions, prototype objects, and methods. The ECMAScript built-in objects themselves follow such a class-like pattern. Beginning with ECMAScript 2015, the ECMAScript language includes syntactic class definitions that permit programmers to concisely define objects that conform to the same class-like abstraction pattern used by the built-in objects.

4.2.2 The Strict Variant of ECMAScript

The ECMAScript Language recognizes the possibility that some users of the language may wish to restrict their usage of some features available in the language. They might do so in the interests of security, to avoid what they consider to be error-prone features, to get enhanced error checking, or for other reasons of their choosing. In support of this possibility, ECMAScript defines a strict variant of the language. The strict variant of the language excludes some specific syntactic and semantic features of the regular ECMAScript language and modifies the detailed semantics of some features. The strict variant also specifies additional error conditions that must be reported by throwing error exceptions in situations that are not specified as errors by the non-strict form of the language.

The strict variant of ECMAScript is commonly referred to as the strict mode of the language. Strict mode selection and use of the strict mode syntax and semantics of ECMAScript is explicitly made at the level of individual ECMAScript source text units. Because strict mode is selected at the level of a syntactic source text unit, strict mode only imposes restrictions that have local effect within such a source text unit. Strict mode does not restrict or modify any aspect of the ECMAScript semantics that must operate consistently across multiple source text units. A complete ECMAScript program may be composed of both strict mode and non-strict mode ECMAScript source text units. In this case, strict mode only applies when actually executing code that is defined within a strict mode source text unit.

In order to conform to this specification, an ECMAScript implementation must implement both the full unrestricted ECMAScript language and the strict variant of the ECMAScript language as defined by this specification. In addition, an implementation must support the combination of unrestricted and strict mode source text units into a single composite program.

4.3 Terms and Definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.

4.3.1 type

set of data values as defined in clause 6 of this specification

4.3.2 primitive value

member of one of the types Undefined, Null, Boolean, Number, BigInt, Symbol, or String as defined in clause 6

Note

A primitive value is a datum that is represented directly at the lowest level of the language implementation.

4.3.3 object

member of the type Object

Note

An object is a collection of properties and has a single prototype object. The prototype may be the null value.

4.3.4 constructor

function object that creates and initializes objects

Note

The value of a constructor's "prototype" property is a prototype object that is used to implement inheritance and shared properties.

4.3.5 prototype

object that provides shared properties for other objects

Note

When a constructor creates an object, that object implicitly references the constructor's "prototype" property for the purpose of resolving property references. The constructor's "prototype" property can be referenced by the program expression constructor.prototype, and properties added to an object's prototype are shared, through inheritance, by all objects sharing the prototype. Alternatively, a new object may be created with an explicitly specified prototype by using the Object.create built-in function.

4.3.6 ordinary object

object that has the default behaviour for the essential internal methods that must be supported by all objects

4.3.7 exotic object

object that does not have the default behaviour for one or more of the essential internal methods

Note

Any object that is not an ordinary object is an exotic object.

4.3.8 standard object

object whose semantics are defined by this specification

4.3.9 built-in object

object specified and supplied by an ECMAScript implementation

Note

Standard built-in objects are defined in this specification. An ECMAScript implementation may specify and supply additional kinds of built-in objects. A built-in constructor is a built-in object that is also a constructor.

4.3.10 undefined value

primitive value used when a variable has not been assigned a value

4.3.11 Undefined type

type whose sole value is the undefined value

4.3.12 null value

primitive value that represents the intentional absence of any object value

4.3.13 Null type

type whose sole value is the null value

4.3.14 Boolean value

member of the Boolean type

Note

There are only two Boolean values, true and false.

4.3.15 Boolean type

type consisting of the primitive values true and false

4.3.16 Boolean object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Boolean constructor

Note

A Boolean object is created by using the Boolean constructor in a new expression, supplying a Boolean value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot whose value is the Boolean value. A Boolean object can be coerced to a Boolean value.

4.3.17 String value

primitive value that is a finite ordered sequence of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values

Note

A String value is a member of the String type. Each integer value in the sequence usually represents a single 16-bit unit of UTF-16 text. However, ECMAScript does not place any restrictions or requirements on the values except that they must be 16-bit unsigned integers.

4.3.18 String type

set of all possible String values

4.3.19 String object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in String constructor

Note

A String object is created by using the String constructor in a new expression, supplying a String value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot whose value is the String value. A String object can be coerced to a String value by calling the String constructor as a function (21.1.1.1).

4.3.20 Number value

primitive value corresponding to a double-precision 64-bit binary format IEEE 754-2019 value

Note

A Number value is a member of the Number type and is a direct representation of a number.

4.3.21 Number type

set of all possible Number values including the special “Not-a-Number” (NaN) value, positive infinity, and negative infinity

4.3.22 Number object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Number constructor

Note

A Number object is created by using the Number constructor in a new expression, supplying a Number value as an argument. The resulting object has an internal slot whose value is the Number value. A Number object can be coerced to a Number value by calling the Number constructor as a function (20.1.1.1).

4.3.23 Infinity

Number value that is the positive infinite Number value

4.3.24 NaN

Number value that is an IEEE 754-2019 “Not-a-Number” value

4.3.25 BigInt value

primitive value corresponding to an arbitrary-precision integer value

4.3.26 BigInt type

set of all possible BigInt values

4.3.27 BigInt object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in BigInt constructor

4.3.28 Symbol value

primitive value that represents a unique, non-String Object property key

4.3.29 Symbol type

set of all possible Symbol values

4.3.30 Symbol object

member of the Object type that is an instance of the standard built-in Symbol constructor

4.3.31 function

member of the Object type that may be invoked as a subroutine

Note

In addition to its properties, a function contains executable code and state that determine how it behaves when invoked. A function's code may or may not be written in ECMAScript.

4.3.32 built-in function

built-in object that is a function

Note

Examples of built-in functions include parseInt and Math.exp. An implementation may provide implementation-dependent built-in functions that are not described in this specification.

4.3.33 property

part of an object that associates a key (either a String value or a Symbol value) and a value

Note

Depending upon the form of the property the value may be represented either directly as a data value (a primitive value, an object, or a function object) or indirectly by a pair of accessor functions.

4.3.34 method

function that is the value of a property

Note

When a function is called as a method of an object, the object is passed to the function as its this value.

4.3.35 built-in method

method that is a built-in function

Note

Standard built-in methods are defined in this specification, and an ECMAScript implementation may specify and provide other additional built-in methods.

4.3.36 attribute

internal value that defines some characteristic of a property

4.3.37 own property

property that is directly contained by its object

4.3.38 inherited property

property of an object that is not an own property but is a property (either own or inherited) of the object's prototype

4.4 Organization of This Specification

The remainder of this specification is organized as follows:

Clause 5 defines the notational conventions used throughout the specification.

Clauses 6-9 define the execution environment within which ECMAScript programs operate.

Clauses 10-16 define the actual ECMAScript programming language including its syntactic encoding and the execution semantics of all language features.

Clauses 17-26 define the ECMAScript standard library. They include the definitions of all of the standard objects that are available for use by ECMAScript programs as they execute.

Clause 27 describes the memory consistency model of accesses on SharedArrayBuffer-backed memory and methods of the Atomics object.

5 Notational Conventions

5.1 Syntactic and Lexical Grammars

5.1.1 Context-Free Grammars

A context-free grammar consists of a number of productions. Each production has an abstract symbol called a nonterminal as its left-hand side, and a sequence of zero or more nonterminal and terminal symbols as its right-hand side. For each grammar, the terminal symbols are drawn from a specified alphabet.

A chain production is a production that has exactly one nonterminal symbol on its right-hand side along with zero or more terminal symbols.

Starting from a sentence consisting of a single distinguished nonterminal, called the goal symbol, a given context-free grammar specifies a language, namely, the (perhaps infinite) set of possible sequences of terminal symbols that can result from repeatedly replacing any nonterminal in the sequence with a right-hand side of a production for which the nonterminal is the left-hand side.

5.1.2 The Lexical and RegExp Grammars

A lexical grammar for ECMAScript is given in clause 11. This grammar has as its terminal symbols Unicode code points that conform to the rules for SourceCharacter defined in 10.1. It defines a set of productions, starting from the goal symbol InputElementDiv, InputElementTemplateTail, or InputElementRegExp, or InputElementRegExpOrTemplateTail, that describe how sequences of such code points are translated into a sequence of input elements.

Input elements other than white space and comments form the terminal symbols for the syntactic grammar for ECMAScript and are called ECMAScript tokens. These tokens are the reserved words, identifiers, literals, and punctuators of the ECMAScript language. Moreover, line terminators, although not considered to be tokens, also become part of the stream of input elements and guide the process of automatic semicolon insertion (11.9). Simple white space and single-line comments are discarded and do not appear in the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar. A MultiLineComment (that is, a comment of the form /*…*/ regardless of whether it spans more than one line) is likewise simply discarded if it contains no line terminator; but if a MultiLineComment contains one or more line terminators, then it is replaced by a single line terminator, which becomes part of the stream of input elements for the syntactic grammar.

A RegExp grammar for ECMAScript is given in 21.2.1. This grammar also has as its terminal symbols the code points as defined by SourceCharacter. It defines a set of productions, starting from the goal symbol Pattern, that describe how sequences of code points are translated into regular expression patterns.

Productions of the lexical and RegExp grammars are distinguished by having two colons “::” as separating punctuation. The lexical and RegExp grammars share some productions.

5.1.3 The Numeric String Grammar

Another grammar is used for translating Strings into numeric values. This grammar is similar to the part of the lexical grammar having to do with numeric literals and has as its terminal symbols SourceCharacter. This grammar appears in 7.1.4.1.

Productions of the numeric string grammar are distinguished by having three colons “:::” as punctuation.

5.1.4 The Syntactic Grammar

The syntactic grammar for ECMAScript is given in clauses 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. This grammar has ECMAScript tokens defined by the lexical grammar as its terminal symbols (5.1.2). It defines a set of productions, starting from two alternative goal symbols Script and Module, that describe how sequences of tokens form syntactically correct independent components of ECMAScript programs.

When a stream of code points is to be parsed as an ECMAScript Script or Module, it is first converted to a stream of input elements by repeated application of the lexical grammar; this stream of input elements is then parsed by a single application of the syntactic grammar. The input stream is syntactically in error if the tokens in the stream of input elements cannot be parsed as a single instance of the goal nonterminal (Script or Module), with no tokens left over.

When a parse is successful, it constructs a parse tree, a rooted tree structure in which each node is a Parse Node. Each Parse Node is an instance of a symbol in the grammar; it represents a span of the source text that can be derived from that symbol. The root node of the parse tree, representing the whole of the source text, is an instance of the parse's goal symbol. When a Parse Node is an instance of a nonterminal, it is also an instance of some production that has that nonterminal as its left-hand side. Moreover, it has zero or more children, one for each symbol on the production's right-hand side: each child is a Parse Node that is an instance of the corresponding symbol.

New Parse Nodes are instantiated for each invocation of the parser and never reused between parses even of identical source text. Parse Nodes are considered the same Parse Node if and only if they represent the same span of source text, are instances of the same grammar symbol, and resulted from the same parser invocation.

Note 1

Parsing the same String multiple times will lead to different Parse Nodes. For example, consider:

let str = "1 + 1;";
eval(str);
eval(str);

Each call to eval converts the value of str into an ECMAScript source text and performs an independent parse that creates its own separate tree of Parse Nodes. The trees are distinct even though each parse operates upon a source text that was derived from the same String value.

 Note 2
Parse Nodes are specification artefacts, and implementations are not required to use an analogous data structure.

Productions of the syntactic grammar are distinguished by having just one colon “:” as punctuation.

The syntactic grammar as presented in clauses 12, 13, 14 and 15 is not a complete account of which token sequences are accepted as a correct ECMAScript Script or Module. Certain additional token sequences are also accepted, namely, those that would be described by the grammar if only semicolons were added to the sequence in certain places (such as before line terminator characters). Furthermore, certain token sequences that are described by the grammar are not considered acceptable if a line terminator character appears in certain “awkward” places.

In certain cases, in order to avoid ambiguities, the syntactic grammar uses generalized productions that permit token sequences that do not form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module. For example, this technique is used for object literals and object destructuring patterns. In such cases a more restrictive supplemental grammar is provided that further restricts the acceptable token sequences. Typically, an early error rule will then define an error condition if "P is not covering an N", where P is a Parse Node (an instance of the generalized production) and N is a nonterminal from the supplemental grammar. Here, the sequence of tokens originally matched by P is parsed again using N as the goal symbol. (If N takes grammatical parameters, then they are set to the same values used when P was originally parsed.) An error occurs if the sequence of tokens cannot be parsed as a single instance of N, with no tokens left over. Subsequently, algorithms access the result of the parse using a phrase of the form "the N that is covered by P". This will always be a Parse Node (an instance of N, unique for a given P), since any parsing failure would have been detected by an early error rule.

5.1.5 Grammar Notation

Terminal symbols are shown in fixed width font, both in the productions of the grammars and throughout this specification whenever the text directly refers to such a terminal symbol. These are to appear in a script exactly as written. All terminal symbol code points specified in this way are to be understood as the appropriate Unicode code points from the Basic Latin range, as opposed to any similar-looking code points from other Unicode ranges. A code point in a terminal symbol cannot be expressed by a \ UnicodeEscapeSequence.

Nonterminal symbols are shown in italic type. The definition of a nonterminal (also called a “production”) is introduced by the name of the nonterminal being defined followed by one or more colons. (The number of colons indicates to which grammar the production belongs.) One or more alternative right-hand sides for the nonterminal then follow on succeeding lines. For example, the syntactic definition:

WhileStatement:while(Expression)Statement

states that the nonterminal WhileStatement represents the token while, followed by a left parenthesis token, followed by an Expression, followed by a right parenthesis token, followed by a Statement. The occurrences of Expression and Statement are themselves nonterminals. As another example, the syntactic definition:

ArgumentList:AssignmentExpression ArgumentList,AssignmentExpression

states that an ArgumentList may represent either a single AssignmentExpression or an ArgumentList, followed by a comma, followed by an AssignmentExpression. This definition of ArgumentList is recursive, that is, it is defined in terms of itself. The result is that an ArgumentList may contain any positive number of arguments, separated by commas, where each argument expression is an AssignmentExpression. Such recursive definitions of nonterminals are common.

The subscripted suffix “opt”, which may appear after a terminal or nonterminal, indicates an optional symbol. The alternative containing the optional symbol actually specifies two right-hand sides, one that omits the optional element and one that includes it. This means that:

VariableDeclaration:BindingIdentifierInitializeropt

is a convenient abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration:BindingIdentifier BindingIdentifierInitializer

and that:

IterationStatement:for(LexicalDeclarationExpressionopt;Expressionopt)Statement

is a convenient abbreviation for:

IterationStatement:for(LexicalDeclaration;Expressionopt)Statement for(LexicalDeclarationExpression;Expressionopt)Statement

which in turn is an abbreviation for:

IterationStatement:for(LexicalDeclaration;)Statement for(LexicalDeclaration;Expression)Statement for(LexicalDeclarationExpression;)Statement for(LexicalDeclarationExpression;Expression)Statement

so, in this example, the nonterminal IterationStatement actually has four alternative right-hand sides.

A production may be parameterized by a subscripted annotation of the form “[parameters]”, which may appear as a suffix to the nonterminal symbol defined by the production. “parameters” may be either a single name or a comma separated list of names. A parameterized production is shorthand for a set of productions defining all combinations of the parameter names, preceded by an underscore, appended to the parameterized nonterminal symbol. This means that:

StatementList[Return]:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

is a convenient abbreviation for:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement StatementList_Return:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

and that:

StatementList[Return, In]:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement StatementList_Return:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement StatementList_In:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement StatementList_Return_In:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

Multiple parameters produce a combinatory number of productions, not all of which are necessarily referenced in a complete grammar.

References to nonterminals on the right-hand side of a production can also be parameterized. For example:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement[+In]

is equivalent to saying:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement_In

and:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement[~In]

is equivalent to:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

A nonterminal reference may have both a parameter list and an “opt” suffix. For example:

VariableDeclaration:BindingIdentifierInitializer[+In]opt

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration:BindingIdentifier BindingIdentifierInitializer_In

Prefixing a parameter name with “?” on a right-hand side nonterminal reference makes that parameter value dependent upon the occurrence of the parameter name on the reference to the current production's left-hand side symbol. For example:

VariableDeclaration[In]:BindingIdentifierInitializer[?In]

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration:BindingIdentifierInitializer VariableDeclaration_In:BindingIdentifierInitializer_In

If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with “[+parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter was used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with “[~parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter was not used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. This means that:

StatementList[Return]:[+Return]ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList:ExpressionStatement StatementList_Return:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

and that:

StatementList[Return]:[~Return]ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList:ReturnStatement ExpressionStatement StatementList_Return:ExpressionStatement

When the words “one of” follow the colon(s) in a grammar definition, they signify that each of the terminal symbols on the following line or lines is an alternative definition. For example, the lexical grammar for ECMAScript contains the production:

NonZeroDigit::one of123456789

which is merely a convenient abbreviation for:

NonZeroDigit::1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

If the phrase “[empty]” appears as the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production's right-hand side contains no terminals or nonterminals.

If the phrase “[lookahead ∉ set]” appears in the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production may not be used if the immediately following input token sequence is a member of the given set. The set can be written as a comma separated list of one or two element terminal sequences enclosed in curly brackets. For convenience, the set can also be written as a nonterminal, in which case it represents the set of all terminals to which that nonterminal could expand. If the set consists of a single terminal the phrase “[lookahead ≠ terminal]” may be used.

For example, given the definitions:

DecimalDigit::one of0123456789 DecimalDigits::DecimalDigit DecimalDigitsDecimalDigit

the definition:

LookaheadExample::n[lookahead ∉ { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }]DecimalDigits DecimalDigit[lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

matches either the letter n followed by one or more decimal digits the first of which is even, or a decimal digit not followed by another decimal digit.

Similarly, if the phrase “[lookahead ∈ set]” appears in the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production may only be used if the immediately following input token sequence is a member of the given set. If the set consists of a single terminal the phrase “[lookahead = terminal]” may be used.

If the phrase “[no LineTerminator here]” appears in the right-hand side of a production of the syntactic grammar, it indicates that the production is a restricted production: it may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the input stream at the indicated position. For example, the production:

ThrowStatement:throw[no LineTerminator here]Expression;

indicates that the production may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the script between the throw token and the Expression.

Unless the presence of a LineTerminator is forbidden by a restricted production, any number of occurrences of LineTerminator may appear between any two consecutive tokens in the stream of input elements without affecting the syntactic acceptability of the script.

When an alternative in a production of the lexical grammar or the numeric string grammar appears to be a multi-code point token, it represents the sequence of code points that would make up such a token.

The right-hand side of a production may specify that certain expansions are not permitted by using the phrase “but not” and then indicating the expansions to be excluded. For example, the production:

Identifier::IdentifierNamebut not ReservedWord

means that the nonterminal Identifier may be replaced by any sequence of code points that could replace IdentifierName provided that the same sequence of code points could not replace ReservedWord.

Finally, a few nonterminal symbols are described by a descriptive phrase in sans-serif type in cases where it would be impractical to list all the alternatives:

SourceCharacter::any Unicode code point

5.2 Algorithm Conventions

The specification often uses a numbered list to specify steps in an algorithm. These algorithms are used to precisely specify the required semantics of ECMAScript language constructs. The algorithms are not intended to imply the use of any specific implementation technique. In practice, there may be more efficient algorithms available to implement a given feature.

Algorithms may be explicitly parameterized, in which case the names and usage of the parameters must be provided as part of the algorithm's definition.

Algorithm steps may be subdivided into sequential substeps. Substeps are indented and may themselves be further divided into indented substeps. Outline numbering conventions are used to identify substeps with the first level of substeps labelled with lower case alphabetic characters and the second level of substeps labelled with lower case roman numerals. If more than three levels are required these rules repeat with the fourth level using numeric labels. For example:

  1. Top-level step
    1. Substep.
    2. Substep.
      1. Subsubstep.
        1. Subsubsubstep
          1. Subsubsubsubstep
            1. Subsubsubsubsubstep

A step or substep may be written as an “if” predicate that conditions its substeps. In this case, the substeps are only applied if the predicate is true. If a step or substep begins with the word “else”, it is a predicate that is the negation of the preceding “if” predicate step at the same level.

A step may specify the iterative application of its substeps.

A step that begins with “Assert:” asserts an invariant condition of its algorithm. Such assertions are used to make explicit algorithmic invariants that would otherwise be implicit. Such assertions add no additional semantic requirements and hence need not be checked by an implementation. They are used simply to clarify algorithms.

Algorithm steps may declare named aliases for any value using the form “Let x be someValue”. These aliases are reference-like in that both x and someValue refer to the same underlying data and modifications to either are visible to both. Algorithm steps that want to avoid this reference-like behaviour should explicitly make a copy of the right-hand side: “Let x be a copy of someValue” creates a shallow copy of someValue.

Once declared, an alias may be referenced in any subsequent steps and must not be referenced from steps prior to the alias's declaration. Aliases may be modified using the form “Set x to someOtherValue”.

5.2.1 Abstract Operations

In order to facilitate their use in multiple parts of this specification, some algorithms, called abstract operations, are named and written in parameterized functional form so that they may be referenced by name from within other algorithms. Abstract operations are typically referenced using a functional application style such as OperationName(arg1, arg2). Some abstract operations are treated as polymorphically dispatched methods of class-like specification abstractions. Such method-like abstract operations are typically referenced using a method application style such as someValue.OperationName(arg1, arg2).

5.2.2 Syntax-Directed Operations

A syntax-directed operation is a named operation whose definition consists of algorithms, each of which is associated with one or more productions from one of the ECMAScript grammars. A production that has multiple alternative definitions will typically have a distinct algorithm for each alternative. When an algorithm is associated with a grammar production, it may reference the terminal and nonterminal symbols of the production alternative as if they were parameters of the algorithm. When used in this manner, nonterminal symbols refer to the actual alternative definition that is matched when parsing the source text. The source text matched by a grammar production is the portion of the source text that starts at the beginning of the first terminal that participated in the match and ends at the end of the last terminal that participated in the match.

When an algorithm is associated with a production alternative, the alternative is typically shown without any “[ ]” grammar annotations. Such annotations should only affect the syntactic recognition of the alternative and have no effect on the associated semantics for the alternative.

Syntax-directed operations are invoked with a parse node and, optionally, other parameters by using the conventions on steps 1, 3, and 4 in the following algorithm:

  1. Let status be SyntaxDirectedOperation of SomeNonTerminal.
  2. Let someParseNode be the parse of some source text.
  3. Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode.
  4. Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode passing "value" as the argument.

Unless explicitly specified otherwise, all chain productions have an implicit definition for every operation that might be applied to that production's left-hand side nonterminal. The implicit definition simply reapplies the same operation with the same parameters, if any, to the chain production's sole right-hand side nonterminal and then returns the result. For example, assume that some algorithm has a step of the form: “Return the result of evaluating Block” and that there is a production:

Block:{StatementList}

but the Evaluation operation does not associate an algorithm with that production. In that case, the Evaluation operation implicitly includes an association of the form:

Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Block:{StatementList}
  1. Return the result of evaluating StatementList.

5.2.3 Runtime Semantics

Algorithms which specify semantics that must be called at runtime are called runtime semantics. Runtime semantics are defined by abstract operations or syntax-directed operations. Such algorithms always return a completion record.

5.2.3.1 Implicit Completion Values

The algorithms of this specification often implicitly return Completion Records whose [[Type]] is normal. Unless it is otherwise obvious from the context, an algorithm statement that returns a value that is not a Completion Record, such as:

  1. Return "Infinity".

means the same thing as:

  1. Return NormalCompletion("Infinity").

However, if the value expression of a “return” statement is a Completion Record construction literal, the resulting Completion Record is returned. If the value expression is a call to an abstract operation, the “return” statement simply returns the Completion Record produced by the abstract operation.

The abstract operation Completion(completionRecord) is used to emphasize that a previously computed Completion Record is being returned. The Completion abstract operation takes a single argument, completionRecord, and performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: completionRecord is a Completion Record.
  2. Return completionRecord as the Completion Record of this abstract operation.

A “return” statement without a value in an algorithm step means the same thing as:

  1. Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

Any reference to a Completion Record value that is in a context that does not explicitly require a complete Completion Record value is equivalent to an explicit reference to the [[Value]] field of the Completion Record value unless the Completion Record is an abrupt completion.

5.2.3.2 Throw an Exception

Algorithms steps that say to throw an exception, such as

  1. Throw a TypeError exception.

mean the same things as:

  1. Return ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).

5.2.3.3 ReturnIfAbrupt

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(argument).

mean the same thing as:

  1. If argument is an abrupt completion, return argument.
  2. Else if argument is a Completion Record, set argument to argument.[[Value]].

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(AbstractOperation()).

mean the same thing as:

  1. Let hygienicTemp be AbstractOperation().
  2. If hygienicTemp is an abrupt completion, return hygienicTemp.
  3. Else if hygienicTemp is a Completion Record, set hygienicTemp to hygienicTemp.[[Value]].

Where hygienicTemp is ephemeral and visible only in the steps pertaining to ReturnIfAbrupt.

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

  1. Let result be AbstractOperation(ReturnIfAbrupt(argument)).

mean the same thing as:

  1. If argument is an abrupt completion, return argument.
  2. If argument is a Completion Record, set argument to argument.[[Value]].
  3. Let result be AbstractOperation(argument).

5.2.3.4 ReturnIfAbrupt Shorthands

Invocations of abstract operations and syntax-directed operations that are prefixed by ? indicate that ReturnIfAbrupt should be applied to the resulting Completion Record. For example, the step:

  1. ? OperationName().

is equivalent to the following step:

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(OperationName()).

Similarly, for method application style, the step:

  1. ? someValue.OperationName().

is equivalent to:

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(someValue.OperationName()).

Similarly, prefix ! is used to indicate that the following invocation of an abstract or syntax-directed operation will never return an abrupt completion and that the resulting Completion Record's [[Value]] field should be used in place of the return value of the operation. For example, the step:

  1. Let val be ! OperationName().

is equivalent to the following steps:

  1. Let val be OperationName().
  2. Assert: val is never an abrupt completion.
  3. If val is a Completion Record, set val to val.[[Value]].

Syntax-directed operations for runtime semantics make use of this shorthand by placing ! or ? before the invocation of the operation:

  1. Perform ! SyntaxDirectedOperation of NonTerminal.

5.2.4 Static Semantics

Context-free grammars are not sufficiently powerful to express all the rules that define whether a stream of input elements form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module that may be evaluated. In some situations additional rules are needed that may be expressed using either ECMAScript algorithm conventions or prose requirements. Such rules are always associated with a production of a grammar and are called the static semantics of the production.

Static Semantic Rules have names and typically are defined using an algorithm. Named Static Semantic Rules are associated with grammar productions and a production that has multiple alternative definitions will typically have for each alternative a distinct algorithm for each applicable named static semantic rule.

Unless otherwise specified every grammar production alternative in this specification implicitly has a definition for a static semantic rule named Contains which takes an argument named symbol whose value is a terminal or nonterminal of the grammar that includes the associated production. The default definition of Contains is:

  1. For each child node child of this Parse Node, do
    1. If child is an instance of symbol, return true.
    2. If child is an instance of a nonterminal, then
      1. Let contained be the result of child Contains symbol.
      2. If contained is true, return true.
  2. Return false.

The above definition is explicitly over-ridden for specific productions.

A special kind of static semantic rule is an Early Error Rule. Early error rules define early error conditions (see clause 16) that are associated with specific grammar productions. Evaluation of most early error rules are not explicitly invoked within the algorithms of this specification. A conforming implementation must, prior to the first evaluation of a Script or Module, validate all of the early error rules of the productions used to parse that Script or Module. If any of the early error rules are violated the Script or Module is invalid and cannot be evaluated.

5.2.5 Mathematical Operations

This specification makes reference to two kinds of numeric values:

  • Number: IEEE 754-2019 double-precision floating point values, used as the default numeric type.
  • Mathematical value: Arbitrary real numbers, used for specific situations.

In the language of this specification, numerical values and operations (including addition, subtraction, negation, multiplication, division, and comparison) are distinguished among different numeric kinds using subscripts. The subscript 𝔽 refers to Numbers, and the subscript ℝ refers to mathematical values. A subscript is used following each numeric value and operation.

For brevity, the 𝔽 subscript can be omitted on Number values—a numeric value with no subscript is interpreted to be a Number. An operation with no subscript is interpreted to be a Number operation, unless one of the parameters has a particular subscript, in which case the operation adopts that subscript. For example, 1ℝ + 2ℝ = 3ℝ is a statement about mathematical values, and 1 + 2 = 3 is a statement about Numbers.

In general, when this specification refers to a numerical value, such as in the phrase, "the length of y" or "the integer represented by the four hexadecimal digits ...", without explicitly specifying a numeric kind, the phrase refers to a Number. Phrases which refer to a mathematical value are explicitly annotated as such; for example, "the mathematical value of the number of code points in ...".

It is not defined to mix Numbers and mathematical values in either arithmetic or comparison operations, and any such undefined operation would be an editorial error in this specification text.

The Number value 0, alternatively written 0𝔽, is defined as the double-precision floating point positive zero value. In certain contexts, it may also be written as +0 for clarity.

This specification denotes most numeric values in base 10; it also uses numeric values of the form 0x followed by digits 0-9 or A-F as base-16 values.

In certain contexts, an operation is specified which is generic between Numbers and mathematical values. In these cases, the subscript can be a variable; t is often used for this purpose, for example 5t × 10t = 50t for any t ranging over ℝ and 𝔽, since the values involved are within the range where the semantics coincide.

Conversions between mathematical values and numbers are never implicit, and always explicit in this document. A conversion from a mathematical value to a Number is denoted as "the Number value for x", and is defined in 6.1.6.1. A conversion from a Number to a mathematical value is denoted as "the mathematical value of x", or ℝ(x). Note that the mathematical value of non-finite values is not defined, and the mathematical value of +0 and -0 is the mathematical value 0ℝ.

When the term integer is used in this specification, it refers to a Number value whose mathematical value is in the set of integers, unless otherwise stated: when the term mathematical integer is used in this specification, it refers to a mathematical value which is in the set of integers. As shorthand, integert can be used to refer to either of the two, as determined by t.

The mathematical function abst(x) produces the absolute value of x, which is -tx if x <t 0t and otherwise is x itself.

The mathematical function mint(x1, x2, … , xN) produces the mathematically smallest of x1 through xN. The mathematical function maxt(x1, x2, ..., xN) produces the mathematically largest of x1 through xN. The domain and range of these mathematical functions include +∞ and -∞.

The notation “x modulot y” (y must be finite and nonzero) computes a value k of the same sign as y (or zero) such that abst(k) <t abst(y) and x-tk = q ×t y for some integert q.

The mathematical function floort(x) produces the largest integert (closest to positive infinity) that is not larger than x.

Note

floort(x) = x -t (x modulot 1t).

5.2.6 Value Notation

In this specification, ECMAScript language values are displayed in bold. Examples include null, true, or "hello". These are distinguished from longer ECMAScript code sequences such as Function.prototype.apply or let n = 42;.

Values which are internal to the specification and not directly observable from ECMAScript code are indicated with a sans-serif typeface. For instance, a Completion Record's [[Type]] field takes on values like normal, return, or throw.

6 ECMAScript Data Types and Values

Algorithms within this specification manipulate values each of which has an associated type. The possible value types are exactly those defined in this clause. Types are further subclassified into ECMAScript language types and specification types.

Within this specification, the notation “Type(x)” is used as shorthand for “the type of x” where “type” refers to the ECMAScript language and specification types defined in this clause. When the term “empty” is used as if it was naming a value, it is equivalent to saying “no value of any type”.

6.1 ECMAScript Language Types

An ECMAScript language type corresponds to values that are directly manipulated by an ECMAScript programmer using the ECMAScript language. The ECMAScript language types are Undefined, Null, Boolean, String, Symbol, Number, BigInt, and Object. An ECMAScript language value is a value that is characterized by an ECMAScript language type.

6.1.1 The Undefined Type

The Undefined type has exactly one value, called undefined. Any variable that has not been assigned a value has the value undefined.

6.1.2 The Null Type

The Null type has exactly one value, called null.

6.1.3 The Boolean Type

The Boolean type represents a logical entity having two values, called true and false.

6.1.4 The String Type

The String type is the set of all ordered sequences of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values (“elements”) up to a maximum length of 253 - 1 elements. The String type is generally used to represent textual data in a running ECMAScript program, in which case each element in the String is treated as a UTF-16 code unit value. Each element is regarded as occupying a position within the sequence. These positions are indexed with nonnegative integers. The first element (if any) is at index 0, the next element (if any) at index 1, and so on. The length of a String is the number of elements (i.e., 16-bit values) within it. The empty String has length zero and therefore contains no elements.

ECMAScript operations that do not interpret String contents apply no further semantics. Operations that do interpret String values treat each element as a single UTF-16 code unit. However, ECMAScript does not restrict the value of or relationships between these code units, so operations that further interpret String contents as sequences of Unicode code points encoded in UTF-16 must account for ill-formed subsequences. Such operations apply special treatment to every code unit with a numeric value in the inclusive range 0xD800 to 0xDBFF (defined by the Unicode Standard as a leading surrogate, or more formally as a high-surrogate code unit) and every code unit with a numeric value in the inclusive range 0xDC00 to 0xDFFF (defined as a trailing surrogate, or more formally as a low-surrogate code unit) using the following rules:

The function String.prototype.normalize (see 21.1.3.13) can be used to explicitly normalize a String value. String.prototype.localeCompare (see 21.1.3.10) internally normalizes String values, but no other operations implicitly normalize the strings upon which they operate. Only operations that are explicitly specified to be language or locale sensitive produce language-sensitive results.

Note

The rationale behind this design was to keep the implementation of Strings as simple and high-performing as possible. If ECMAScript source text is in Normalized Form C, string literals are guaranteed to also be normalized, as long as they do not contain any Unicode escape sequences.

In this specification, the phrase "the string-concatenation of A, B, ..." (where each argument is a String value, a code unit, or a sequence of code units) denotes the String value whose sequence of code units is the concatenation of the code units (in order) of each of the arguments (in order).

6.1.5 The Symbol Type

The Symbol type is the set of all non-String values that may be used as the key of an Object property (6.1.7).

Each possible Symbol value is unique and immutable.

Each Symbol value immutably holds an associated value called [[Description]] that is either undefined or a String value.

6.1.5.1 Well-Known Symbols

Well-known symbols are built-in Symbol values that are explicitly referenced by algorithms of this specification. They are typically used as the keys of properties whose values serve as extension points of a specification algorithm. Unless otherwise specified, well-known symbols values are shared by all realms (8.2).

Within this specification a well-known symbol is referred to by using a notation of the form @@name, where “name” is one of the values listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Well-known Symbols
Specification Name [[Description]] Value and Purpose
@@asyncIterator "Symbol.asyncIterator" A method that returns the default AsyncIterator for an object. Called by the semantics of the for-await-of statement.
@@hasInstance "Symbol.hasInstance" A method that determines if a constructor object recognizes an object as one of the constructor's instances. Called by the semantics of the instanceof operator.
@@isConcatSpreadable "Symbol.isConcatSpreadable" A Boolean valued property that if true indicates that an object should be flattened to its array elements by Array.prototype.concat.
@@iterator "Symbol.iterator" A method that returns the default Iterator for an object. Called by the semantics of the for-of statement.
@@match "Symbol.match" A regular expression method that matches the regular expression against a string. Called by the String.prototype.match method.
@@matchAll "Symbol.matchAll" A regular expression method that returns an iterator, that yields matches of the regular expression against a string. Called by the String.prototype.matchAll method.
@@replace "Symbol.replace" A regular expression method that replaces matched substrings of a string. Called by the String.prototype.replace method.
@@search "Symbol.search" A regular expression method that returns the index within a string that matches the regular expression. Called by the String.prototype.search method.
@@species "Symbol.species" A function valued property that is the constructor function that is used to create derived objects.
@@split "Symbol.split" A regular expression method that splits a string at the indices that match the regular expression. Called by the String.prototype.split method.
@@toPrimitive "Symbol.toPrimitive" A method that converts an object to a corresponding primitive value. Called by the ToPrimitive abstract operation.
@@toStringTag "Symbol.toStringTag" A String valued property that is used in the creation of the default string description of an object. Accessed by the built-in method Object.prototype.toString.
@@unscopables "Symbol.unscopables" An object valued property whose own and inherited property names are property names that are excluded from the with environment bindings of the associated object.

6.1.6 Numeric Types

ECMAScript has two built-in numeric types: Number and BigInt. In this specification, every numeric type T contains a multiplicative identity value denoted T::unit. The specification types also have the following abstract operations, likewise denoted T::op for a given operation with specification name op. All argument types are T. The "Result" column shows the return type, along with an indication if it is possible for some invocations of the operation to return an abrupt completion.

Table 2: Numeric Type Operations
Invocation Synopsis Example source Invoked by the Evaluation semantics of ... Result
T::unaryMinus(x) -x Unary - Operator T
T::bitwiseNOT(x) ~x Bitwise NOT Operator ( ~ ) T
T::exponentiate(x, y) x ** y Exponentiation Operator and Math.pow ( base, exponent ) T, may throw RangeError
T::multiply(x, y) x * y Multiplicative Operators T
T::divide(x, y) x / y Multiplicative Operators T, may throw RangeError
T::remainder(x, y) x % y Multiplicative Operators T, may throw RangeError
T::add(x, y) x ++
++ x
x + y 		Postfix Increment Operator, Prefix Increment Operator, and The Addition Operator ( + ) T
T::subtract(x, y) x --
-- x
x - y 		Postfix Decrement Operator, Prefix Decrement Operator, and The Subtraction Operator ( - ) T
T::leftShift(x, y) x << y The Left Shift Operator ( << ) T
T::signedRightShift(x, y) x >> y The Signed Right Shift Operator ( >> ) T
T::unsignedRightShift(x, y) x >>> y The Unsigned Right Shift Operator ( >>> ) T, may throw TypeError
T::lessThan(x, y) x < y
x > y
x <= y
x >= y 		Relational Operators, via Abstract Relational Comparison Boolean or undefined (for unordered inputs)
T::equal(x, y) x == y
x != y
x === y
x !== y 		Equality Operators, via Strict Equality Comparison Boolean
T::sameValue(x, y) Object internal methods, via SameValue ( x, y ), to test exact value equality Boolean
T::sameValueZero(x, y) Array, Map, and Set methods, via SameValueZero ( x, y ), to test value equality ignoring differences among members of the zero cohort (e.g., -0 and +0) Boolean
T::bitwiseAND(x, y) x & y Binary Bitwise Operators T
T::bitwiseXOR(x, y) x ^ y Binary Bitwise Operators T
T::bitwiseOR(x, y) x | y Binary Bitwise Operators T
T::toString(x) String(x) Many expressions and built-in functions, via ToString ( argument ) String

The T::unit value and T::op operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined here solely to aid the specification of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other abstract operations are defined throughout this specification.

Because the numeric types are in general not convertible without loss of precision or truncation, the ECMAScript language provides no implicit conversion among these types. Programmers must explicitly call Number and BigInt functions to convert among types when calling a function which requires another type.

Note

The first and subsequent editions of ECMAScript have provided, for certain operators, implicit numeric conversions that could lose precision or truncate. These legacy implicit conversions are maintained for backward compatibility, but not provided for BigInt in order to minimize opportunity for programmer error, and to leave open the option of generalized value types in a future edition.

6.1.6.1 The Number Type

The Number type has exactly 18437736874454810627ℝ (that is, 2ℝ64ℝ - 2ℝ53ℝ + 3ℝ) values, representing the double-precision 64-bit format IEEE 754-2019 values as specified in the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic, except that the 9007199254740990ℝ (that is, 2ℝ53ℝ - 2ℝ) distinct “Not-a-Number” values of the IEEE Standard are represented in ECMAScript as a single special NaN value. (Note that the NaN value is produced by the program expression NaN.) In some implementations, external code might be able to detect a difference between various Not-a-Number values, but such behaviour is implementation-dependent; to ECMAScript code, all NaN values are indistinguishable from each other.

Note

The bit pattern that might be observed in an ArrayBuffer (see 24.1) or a SharedArrayBuffer (see 24.2) after a Number value has been stored into it is not necessarily the same as the internal representation of that Number value used by the ECMAScript implementation.

There are two other special values, called positive Infinity and negative Infinity. For brevity, these values are also referred to for expository purposes by the symbols +∞ and -∞, respectively. (Note that these two infinite Number values are produced by the program expressions +Infinity (or simply Infinity) and -Infinity.)

The other 18437736874454810624ℝ (that is, 2ℝ64ℝ - 2ℝ53ℝ) values are called the finite numbers. Half of these are positive numbers and half are negative numbers; for every finite positive Number value there is a corresponding negative value having the same magnitude.

Note that there is both a positive zero and a negative zero. For brevity, these values are also referred to for expository purposes by the symbols +0 and -0, respectively. (Note that these two different zero Number values are produced by the program expressions +0 (or simply 0) and -0.)

The 18437736874454810622ℝ (that is, 2ℝ64ℝ - 2ℝ53ℝ - 2ℝ) finite nonzero values are of two kinds:

18428729675200069632ℝ (that is, 2ℝ64ℝ - 2ℝ54ℝ) of them are normalized, having the form

s × m × 2e

where s is +1ℝ or -1ℝ, m is a positive mathematical integer less than 2ℝ53ℝ but not less than 2ℝ52ℝ, and e is a mathematical integer ranging from -1074ℝ to 971ℝ, inclusive.

The remaining 9007199254740990ℝ (that is, 2ℝ53ℝ - 2ℝ) values are denormalized, having the form

s × m × 2e

where s is +1ℝ or -1ℝ, m is a positive mathematical integer less than 2ℝ52ℝ, and e is -1074ℝ.

Note that all the positive and negative mathematical integers whose magnitude is no greater than 253 are representable in the Number type (indeed, the mathematical integer 0 has two representations, +0 and -0).

A finite number has an odd significand if it is nonzero and the mathematical integer m used to express it (in one of the two forms shown above) is odd. Otherwise, it has an even significand.

In this specification, the phrase “the Number value for x” where x represents an exact real mathematical quantity (which might even be an irrational number such as π) means a Number value chosen in the following manner. Consider the set of all finite values of the Number type, with -0 removed and with two additional values added to it that are not representable in the Number type, namely 2ℝ1024ℝ (which is +1ℝ × 2ℝ53ℝ × 2ℝ971ℝ) and -2ℝ1024ℝ (which is -1ℝ × 2ℝ53ℝ × 2ℝ971ℝ). Choose the member of this set that is closest in value to x. If two values of the set are equally close, then the one with an even significand is chosen; for this purpose, the two extra values 2ℝ1024ℝ and -2ℝ1024ℝ are considered to have even significands. Finally, if 2ℝ1024ℝ was chosen, replace it with +∞; if -2ℝ1024ℝ was chosen, replace it with -∞; if +0 was chosen, replace it with -0 if and only if x is less than zero; any other chosen value is used unchanged. The result is the Number value for x. (This procedure corresponds exactly to the behaviour of the IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode.)

Some ECMAScript operators deal only with integers in specific ranges such as -231 through 231 - 1, inclusive, or in the range 0 through 216 - 1, inclusive. These operators accept any value of the Number type but first convert each such value to an integer value in the expected range. See the descriptions of the numeric conversion operations in 7.1.

The Number::unit value is 1.

6.1.6.1.1 Number::unaryMinus ( x )

  1. If x is NaN, return NaN.
  2. Return the result of negating x; that is, compute a Number with the same magnitude but opposite sign.

6.1.6.1.2 Number::bitwiseNOT ( x )

  1. Let oldValue be ! ToInt32(x).
  2. Return the result of applying bitwise complement to oldValue. The result is a signed 32-bit integer.

6.1.6.1.3 Number::exponentiate ( base, exponent )

Returns an implementation-dependent approximation of the result of raising base to the power exponent.

  • If exponent is NaN, the result is NaN.
  • If exponent is +0, the result is 1, even if base is NaN.
  • If exponent is -0, the result is 1, even if base is NaN.
  • If base is NaN and exponent is nonzero, the result is NaN.
  • If abs(base) > 1 and exponent is +∞, the result is +∞.
  • If abs(base) > 1 and exponent is -∞, the result is +0.
  • If abs(base) is 1 and exponent is +∞, the result is NaN.
  • If abs(base) is 1 and exponent is -∞, the result is NaN.
  • If abs(base) < 1 and exponent is +∞, the result is +0.
  • If abs(base) < 1 and exponent is -∞, the result is +∞.
  • If base is +∞ and exponent > 0, the result is +∞.
  • If base is +∞ and exponent < 0, the result is +0.
  • If base is -∞ and exponent > 0 and exponent is an odd integer, the result is -∞.
  • If base is -∞ and exponent > 0 and exponent is not an odd integer, the result is +∞.
  • If base is -∞ and exponent < 0 and exponent is an odd integer, the result is -0.
  • If base is -∞ and exponent < 0 and exponent is not an odd integer, the result is +0.
  • If base is +0 and exponent > 0, the result is +0.
  • If base is +0 and exponent < 0, the result is +∞.
  • If base is -0 and exponent > 0 and exponent is an odd integer, the result is -0.
  • If base is -0 and exponent > 0 and exponent is not an odd integer, the result is +0.
  • If base is -0 and exponent < 0 and exponent is an odd integer, the result is -∞.
  • If base is -0 and exponent < 0 and exponent is not an odd integer, the result is +∞.
  • If base < 0 and base is finite and exponent is finite and exponent is not an integer, the result is NaN.
Note

The result of base ** exponent when base is 1 or -1 and exponent is +Infinity or -Infinity differs from IEEE 754-2019. The first edition of ECMAScript specified a result of NaN for this operation, whereas later versions of IEEE 754-2019 specified 1. The historical ECMAScript behaviour is preserved for compatibility reasons.

6.1.6.1.4 Number::multiply ( x, y )

The * MultiplicativeOperator performs multiplication, producing the product of x and y. Multiplication is commutative. Multiplication is not always associative in ECMAScript, because of finite precision.

The result of a floating-point multiplication is governed by the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic:

  • If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
  • The sign of the result is positive if both operands have the same sign, negative if the operands have different signs.
  • Multiplication of an infinity by a zero results in NaN.
  • Multiplication of an infinity by an infinity results in an infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
  • Multiplication of an infinity by a finite nonzero value results in a signed infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
  • In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity nor NaN is involved, the product is computed and rounded to the nearest representable value using IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode. If the magnitude is too large to represent, the result is then an infinity of appropriate sign. If the magnitude is too small to represent, the result is then a zero of appropriate sign. The ECMAScript language requires support of gradual underflow as defined by IEEE 754-2019.

6.1.6.1.5 Number::divide ( x, y )

The / MultiplicativeOperator performs division, producing the quotient of x and y. x is the dividend and y is the divisor. ECMAScript does not perform integer division. The operands and result of all division operations are double-precision floating-point numbers. The result of division is determined by the specification of IEEE 754-2019 arithmetic:

  • If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
  • The sign of the result is positive if both operands have the same sign, negative if the operands have different signs.
  • Division of an infinity by an infinity results in NaN.
  • Division of an infinity by a zero results in an infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
  • Division of an infinity by a nonzero finite value results in a signed infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
  • Division of a finite value by an infinity results in zero. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
  • Division of a zero by a zero results in NaN; division of zero by any other finite value results in zero, with the sign determined by the rule already stated above.
  • Division of a nonzero finite value by a zero results in a signed infinity. The sign is determined by the rule already stated above.
  • In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity, nor a zero, nor NaN is involved, the quotient is computed and rounded to the nearest representable value using IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode. If the magnitude is too large to represent, the operation overflows; the result is then an infinity of appropriate sign. If the magnitude is too small to represent, the operation underflows and the result is a zero of the appropriate sign. The ECMAScript language requires support of gradual underflow as defined by IEEE 754-2019.

6.1.6.1.6 Number::remainder ( n, d )

The % MultiplicativeOperator yields the remainder of its operands from an implied division; n is the dividend and d is the divisor.

Note

In C and C++, the remainder operator accepts only integral operands; in ECMAScript, it also accepts floating-point operands.

The result of a floating-point remainder operation as computed by the % operator is not the same as the “remainder” operation defined by IEEE 754-2019. The IEEE 754-2019 “remainder” operation computes the remainder from a rounding division, not a truncating division, and so its behaviour is not analogous to that of the usual integer remainder operator. Instead the ECMAScript language defines % on floating-point operations to behave in a manner analogous to that of the Java integer remainder operator; this may be compared with the C library function fmod.

The result of an ECMAScript floating-point remainder operation is determined by the rules of IEEE arithmetic:

  • If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
  • The sign of the result equals the sign of the dividend.
  • If the dividend is an infinity, or the divisor is a zero, or both, the result is NaN.
  • If the dividend is finite and the divisor is an infinity, the result equals the dividend.
  • If the dividend is a zero and the divisor is nonzero and finite, the result is the same as the dividend.
  • In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity, nor a zero, nor NaN is involved, the floating-point remainder r from a dividend n and a divisor d is defined by the mathematical relation r = n - (d × q) where q is an integer that is negative only if n/d is negative and positive only if n/d is positive, and whose magnitude is as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of the true mathematical quotient of n and d. r is computed and rounded to the nearest representable value using IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode.

6.1.6.1.7 Number::add ( x, y )

The + operator performs addition when applied to x and y, producing the sum of the operands.

Addition is a commutative operation, but not always associative.

The result of an addition is determined using the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic:

  • If either operand is NaN, the result is NaN.
  • The sum of two infinities of opposite sign is NaN.
  • The sum of two infinities of the same sign is the infinity of that sign.
  • The sum of an infinity and a finite value is equal to the infinite operand.
  • The sum of two negative zeroes is -0. The sum of two positive zeroes, or of two zeroes of opposite sign, is +0.
  • The sum of a zero and a nonzero finite value is equal to the nonzero operand.
  • The sum of two nonzero finite values of the same magnitude and opposite sign is +0.
  • In the remaining cases, where neither an infinity, nor a zero, nor NaN is involved, and the operands have the same sign or have different magnitudes, the sum is computed and rounded to the nearest representable value using IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode. If the magnitude is too large to represent, the operation overflows and the result is then an infinity of appropriate sign. The ECMAScript language requires support of gradual underflow as defined by IEEE 754-2019.

6.1.6.1.8 Number::subtract ( x, y )

The - operator performs subtraction when applied to two operands of numeric type, producing the difference of its operands; x is the minuend and y is the subtrahend. It is always the case that x - y produces the same result as x + (-y).

The result of - operator is then x + (-y).

6.1.6.1.9 Number::leftShift ( x, y )

  1. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
  2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
  3. Let shiftCount be the result of masking out all but the least significant 5 bits of rnum, that is, compute rnum & 0x1F.
  4. Return the result of left shifting lnum by shiftCount bits. The result is a signed 32-bit integer.

6.1.6.1.10 Number::signedRightShift ( x, y )

  1. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
  2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
  3. Let shiftCount be the result of masking out all but the least significant 5 bits of rnum, that is, compute rnum & 0x1F.
  4. Return the result of performing a sign-extending right shift of lnum by shiftCount bits. The most significant bit is propagated. The result is a signed 32-bit integer.

6.1.6.1.11 Number::unsignedRightShift ( x, y )

  1. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
  2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
  3. Let shiftCount be the result of masking out all but the least significant 5 bits of rnum, that is, compute rnum & 0x1F.
  4. Return the result of performing a zero-filling right shift of lnum by shiftCount bits. Vacated bits are filled with zero. The result is an unsigned 32-bit integer.

6.1.6.1.12 Number::lessThan ( x, y )

  1. If x is NaN, return undefined.
  2. If y is NaN, return undefined.
  3. If x and y are the same Number value, return false.
  4. If x is +0 and y is -0, return false.
  5. If x is -0 and y is +0, return false.
  6. If x is +∞, return false.
  7. If y is +∞, return true.
  8. If y is -∞, return false.
  9. If x is -∞, return true.
  10. If the mathematical value of x is less than the mathematical value of y—note that these mathematical values are both finite and not both zero—return true. Otherwise, return false.

6.1.6.1.13 Number::equal ( x, y )

  1. If x is NaN, return false.
  2. If y is NaN, return false.
  3. If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
  4. If x is +0 and y is -0, return true.
  5. If x is -0 and y is +0, return true.
  6. Return false.

6.1.6.1.14 Number::sameValue ( x, y )

  1. If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.
  2. If x is +0 and y is -0, return false.
  3. If x is -0 and y is +0, return false.
  4. If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
  5. Return false.

6.1.6.1.15 Number::sameValueZero ( x, y )

  1. If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.
  2. If x is +0 and y is -0, return true.
  3. If x is -0 and y is +0, return true.
  4. If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
  5. Return false.

6.1.6.1.16 NumberBitwiseOp ( op, x, y )

  1. Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
  2. Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
  3. Return the result of applying the bitwise operator op to lnum and rnum. The result is a signed 32-bit integer.

6.1.6.1.17 Number::bitwiseAND ( x, y )

  1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

6.1.6.1.18 Number::bitwiseXOR ( x, y )

  1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

6.1.6.1.19 Number::bitwiseOR ( x, y )

  1. Return NumberBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

6.1.6.1.20 Number::toString ( x )

The abstract operation Number::toString converts a Number x to String format as follows:

  1. If x is NaN, return the String "NaN".
  2. If x is +0 or -0, return the String "0".
  3. If x is less than zero, return the string-concatenation of "-" and ! Number::toString(-x).
  4. If x is +∞, return the String "Infinity".
  5. Otherwise, let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10k - 1 ≤ s < 10k, the Number value for ℝ(s) × 10ℝℝ(n) - ℝ(k) is x, and k is as small as possible. Note that k is the number of digits in the decimal representation of s, that s is not divisible by 10ℝ, and that the least significant digit of s is not necessarily uniquely determined by these criteria.
  6. If k ≤ n ≤ 21, return the string-concatenation of:
    • the code units of the k digits of the decimal representation of s (in order, with no leading zeroes)
    • n - k occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
  7. If 0 < n ≤ 21, return the string-concatenation of:
    • the code units of the most significant n digits of the decimal representation of s
    • the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
    • the code units of the remaining k - n digits of the decimal representation of s
  8. If -6 < n ≤ 0, return the string-concatenation of:
    • the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
    • the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
    • -n occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
    • the code units of the k digits of the decimal representation of s
  9. Otherwise, if k = 1, return the string-concatenation of:
    • the code unit of the single digit of s
    • the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
    • the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS) according to whether n - 1 is positive or negative
    • the code units of the decimal representation of the integer abs(n - 1) (with no leading zeroes)
  10. Return the string-concatenation of:
    • the code units of the most significant digit of the decimal representation of s
    • the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
    • the code units of the remaining k - 1 digits of the decimal representation of s
    • the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
    • the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS) according to whether n - 1 is positive or negative
    • the code units of the decimal representation of the integer abs(n - 1) (with no leading zeroes)
 Note 1

The following observations may be useful as guidelines for implementations, but are not part of the normative requirements of this Standard:

  • If x is any Number value other than -0, then ToNumber(ToString(x)) is exactly the same Number value as x.
  • The least significant digit of s is not always uniquely determined by the requirements listed in step 5.
Note 2

For implementations that provide more accurate conversions than required by the rules above, it is recommended that the following alternative version of step 5 be used as a guideline:

  1. Otherwise, let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10k - 1 ≤ s < 10k, the Number value for ℝ(s) × 10ℝℝ(n) - ℝ(k) is x, and k is as small as possible. If there are multiple possibilities for s, choose the value of s for which ℝ(s) × 10ℝℝ(n) - ℝ(k) is closest in value to ℝ(x). If there are two such possible values of s, choose the one that is even. Note that k is the number of digits in the decimal representation of s and that s is not divisible by 10ℝ.
Note 3

Implementers of ECMAScript may find useful the paper and code written by David M. Gay for binary-to-decimal conversion of floating-point numbers:

Gay, David M. Correctly Rounded Binary-Decimal and Decimal-Binary Conversions. Numerical Analysis, Manuscript 90-10. AT&T Bell Laboratories (Murray Hill, New Jersey). November 30, 1990. Available as
http://ampl.com/REFS/abstracts.html#rounding. Associated code available as
http://netlib.sandia.gov/fp/dtoa.c and as
http://netlib.sandia.gov/fp/g_fmt.c and may also be found at the various netlib mirror sites.

6.1.6.2 The BigInt Type

The BigInt type represents a mathematical integer value. The value may be any size and is not limited to a particular bit-width. Generally, where not otherwise noted, operations are designed to return exact mathematically-based answers. For binary operations, BigInts act as two's complement binary strings, with negative numbers treated as having bits set infinitely to the left.

The BigInt::unit value is 1n.

6.1.6.2.1 BigInt::unaryMinus ( x )

  1. If x is 0n, return 0n.
  2. Return the BigInt value that represents the mathematical value of negating x.

6.1.6.2.2 BigInt::bitwiseNOT ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseNOT with an argument x of type BigInt returns the one's complement of x; that is, -x - 1.

6.1.6.2.3 BigInt::exponentiate ( base, exponent )

  1. If exponent < 0n, throw a RangeError exception.
  2. If base is 0n and exponent is 0n, return 1n.
  3. Return the BigInt value that represents the mathematical value of base raised to the power exponent.

6.1.6.2.4 BigInt::multiply ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::multiply with two arguments x and y of type BigInt returns the BigInt value that represents the result of multiplying x and y.

Note
Even if the result has a much larger bit width than the input, the exact mathematical answer is given.

6.1.6.2.5 BigInt::divide ( x, y )

  1. If y is 0n, throw a RangeError exception.
  2. Let quotient be the mathematical value of x divided by y.
  3. Return the BigInt value that represents quotient rounded towards 0 to the next integral value.

6.1.6.2.6 BigInt::remainder ( n, d )

  1. If d is 0n, throw a RangeError exception.
  2. If n is 0n, return 0n.
  3. Let r be the BigInt defined by the mathematical relation r = n - (d × q) where q is a BigInt that is negative only if n/d is negative and positive only if n/d is positive, and whose magnitude is as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of the true mathematical quotient of n and d.
  4. Return r.
 Note
The sign of the result equals the sign of the dividend.

6.1.6.2.7 BigInt::add ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::add with two arguments x and y of type BigInt returns the BigInt value that represents the sum of x and y.

6.1.6.2.8 BigInt::subtract ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::subtract with two arguments x and y of type BigInt returns the BigInt value that represents the difference x minus y.

6.1.6.2.9 BigInt::leftShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::leftShift with two arguments x and y of type BigInt performs the following steps:

  1. If y < 0n, then
    1. Return the BigInt value that represents x ÷ 2-y, rounding down to the nearest integer, including for negative numbers.
  2. Return the BigInt value that represents x × 2y.
 Note
Semantics here should be equivalent to a bitwise shift, treating the BigInt as an infinite length string of binary two's complement digits.

6.1.6.2.10 BigInt::signedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::signedRightShift with arguments x and y of type BigInt performs the following steps:

  1. Return BigInt::leftShift(x, -y).

6.1.6.2.11 BigInt::unsignedRightShift ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::unsignedRightShift with two arguments x and y of type BigInt performs the following steps:

  1. Throw a TypeError exception.

6.1.6.2.12 BigInt::lessThan ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::lessThan with two arguments x and y of type BigInt returns true if x is less than y and false otherwise.

6.1.6.2.13 BigInt::equal ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::equal with two arguments x and y of type BigInt returns true if x and y have the same mathematical integer value and false otherwise.

6.1.6.2.14 BigInt::sameValue ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::sameValue with two arguments x and y of type BigInt performs the following steps:

  1. Return BigInt::equal(x, y).

6.1.6.2.15 BigInt::sameValueZero ( x, y )

The abstract operation BigInt::sameValueZero with two arguments x and y of type BigInt performs the following steps:

  1. Return BigInt::equal(x, y).

6.1.6.2.16 BinaryAnd ( x, y )

  1. Assert: x is 0 or 1.
  2. Assert: y is 0 or 1.
  3. If x is 1 and y is 1, return 1.
  4. Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.17 BinaryOr ( x, y )

  1. Assert: x is 0 or 1.
  2. Assert: y is 0 or 1.
  3. If x is 1 or y is 1, return 1.
  4. Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.18 BinaryXor ( x, y )

  1. Assert: x is 0 or 1.
  2. Assert: y is 0 or 1.
  3. If x is 1 and y is 0, return 1.
  4. Else if x is 0 and y is 1, return 1.
  5. Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.19 BigIntBitwiseOp ( op, x, y )

  1. Assert: op is "&", "|", or "^".
  2. Let result be 0n.
  3. Let shift be 0.
  4. Repeat, until (x = 0 or x = -1) and (y = 0 or y = -1),
    1. Let xDigit be x modulo 2.
    2. Let yDigit be y modulo 2.
    3. If op is "&", set result to result + 2shift × BinaryAnd(xDigit, yDigit).
    4. Else if op is "|", set result to result + 2shift × BinaryOr(xDigit, yDigit).
    5. Else,
      1. Assert: op is "^".
      2. Set result to result + 2shift × BinaryXor(xDigit, yDigit).
    6. Set shift to shift + 1.
    7. Set x to (x - xDigit) / 2.
    8. Set y to (y - yDigit) / 2.
  5. If op is "&", let tmp be BinaryAnd(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
  6. Else if op is "|", let tmp be BinaryOr(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
  7. Else,
    1. Assert: op is "^".
    2. Let tmp be BinaryXor(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
  8. If tmp ≠ 0, then
    1. Set result to result - 2shift.
    2. NOTE: This extends the sign.
  9. Return result.

6.1.6.2.20 BigInt::bitwiseAND ( x, y )

  1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp("&", x, y).

6.1.6.2.21 BigInt::bitwiseXOR ( x, y )

  1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp("^", x, y).

6.1.6.2.22 BigInt::bitwiseOR ( x, y )

  1. Return BigIntBitwiseOp("|", x, y).

6.1.6.2.23 BigInt::toString ( x )

The abstract operation BigInt::toString converts a BigInt x to String format as follows:

  1. If x is less than zero, return the string-concatenation of the String "-" and ! BigInt::toString(-x).
  2. Return the String value consisting of the code units of the digits of the decimal representation of x.

6.1.7 The Object Type

An Object is logically a collection of properties. Each property is either a data property, or an accessor property:

  • A data property associates a key value with an ECMAScript language value and a set of Boolean attributes.
  • An accessor property associates a key value with one or two accessor functions, and a set of Boolean attributes. The accessor functions are used to store or retrieve an ECMAScript language value that is associated with the property.

Properties are identified using key values. A property key value is either an ECMAScript String value or a Symbol value. All String and Symbol values, including the empty String, are valid as property keys. A property name is a property key that is a String value.

An integer index is a String-valued property key that is a canonical numeric String (see 7.1.21) and whose numeric value is either +0 or a positive integer ≤ 253 - 1. An array index is an integer index whose numeric value i is in the range +0 ≤ i < 232 - 1.

Property keys are used to access properties and their values. There are two kinds of access for properties: get and set, corresponding to value retrieval and assignment, respectively. The properties accessible via get and set access includes both own properties that are a direct part of an object and inherited properties which are provided by another associated object via a property inheritance relationship. Inherited properties may be either own or inherited properties of the associated object. Each own property of an object must each have a key value that is distinct from the key values of the other own properties of that object.

All objects are logically collections of properties, but there are multiple forms of objects that differ in their semantics for accessing and manipulating their properties. Please see 6.1.7.2 for definitions of the multiple forms of objects.

6.1.7.1 Property Attributes

Attributes are used in this specification to define and explain the state of Object properties. A data property associates a key value with the attributes listed in Table 3.

Table 3: Attributes of a Data Property
Attribute Name Value Domain Description
[[Value]] Any ECMAScript language type The value retrieved by a get access of the property.
[[Writable]] Boolean If false, attempts by ECMAScript code to change the property's [[Value]] attribute using [[Set]] will not succeed.
[[Enumerable]] Boolean If true, the property will be enumerated by a for-in enumeration (see 13.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said to be non-enumerable.
[[Configurable]] Boolean If false, attempts to delete the property, change the property to be an accessor property, or change its attributes (other than [[Value]], or changing [[Writable]] to false) will fail.

An accessor property associates a key value with the attributes listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Attributes of an Accessor Property
Attribute Name Value Domain Description
[[Get]] Object | Undefined If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The function's [[Call]] internal method (Table 7) is called with an empty arguments list to retrieve the property value each time a get access of the property is performed.
[[Set]] Object | Undefined If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The function's [[Call]] internal method (Table 7) is called with an arguments list containing the assigned value as its sole argument each time a set access of the property is performed. The effect of a property's [[Set]] internal method may, but is not required to, have an effect on the value returned by subsequent calls to the property's [[Get]] internal method.
[[Enumerable]] Boolean If true, the property is to be enumerated by a for-in enumeration (see 13.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said to be non-enumerable.
[[Configurable]] Boolean If false, attempts to delete the property, change the property to be a data property, or change its attributes will fail.

If the initial values of a property's attributes are not explicitly specified by this specification, the default value defined in Table 5 is used.

Table 5: Default Attribute Values
Attribute Name Default Value
[[Value]] undefined
[[Get]] undefined
[[Set]] undefined
[[Writable]] false
[[Enumerable]] false
[[Configurable]] false

6.1.7.2 Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

The actual semantics of objects, in ECMAScript, are specified via algorithms called internal methods. Each object in an ECMAScript engine is associated with a set of internal methods that defines its runtime behaviour. These internal methods are not part of the ECMAScript language. They are defined by this specification purely for expository purposes. However, each object within an implementation of ECMAScript must behave as specified by the internal methods associated with it. The exact manner in which this is accomplished is determined by the implementation.

Internal method names are polymorphic. This means that different object values may perform different algorithms when a common internal method name is invoked upon them. That actual object upon which an internal method is invoked is the “target” of the invocation. If, at runtime, the implementation of an algorithm attempts to use an internal method of an object that the object does not support, a TypeError exception is thrown.

Internal slots correspond to internal state that is associated with objects and used by various ECMAScript specification algorithms. Internal slots are not object properties and they are not inherited. Depending upon the specific internal slot specification, such state may consist of values of any ECMAScript language type or of specific ECMAScript specification type values. Unless explicitly specified otherwise, internal slots are allocated as part of the process of creating an object and may not be dynamically added to an object. Unless specified otherwise, the initial value of an internal slot is the value undefined. Various algorithms within this specification create objects that have internal slots. However, the ECMAScript language provides no direct way to associate internal slots with an object.

Internal methods and internal slots are identified within this specification using names enclosed in double square brackets [[ ]].

Table 6 summarizes the essential internal methods used by this specification that are applicable to all objects created or manipulated by ECMAScript code. Every object must have algorithms for all of the essential internal methods. However, all objects do not necessarily use the same algorithms for those methods.

An ordinary object is an object that satisfies all of the following criteria:

  • For the internal methods listed in Table 6, the object use those defined in 9.1.
  • If the object has a [[Call]] internal method, it uses the one defined in 9.2.1.
  • If the object has a [[Construct]] internal method, it uses the one defined in 9.2.2.

An exotic object is an object that is not an ordinary object.

This specification recognizes different kinds of exotic objects by those objects' internal methods. An object that is behaviourally equivalent to a particular kind of exotic object (such as an Array exotic object or a bound function exotic object), but does not have the same collection of internal methods specified for that kind, is not recognized as that kind of exotic object.

The “Signature” column of Table 6 and other similar tables describes the invocation pattern for each internal method. The invocation pattern always includes a parenthesized list of descriptive parameter names. If a parameter name is the same as an ECMAScript type name then the name describes the required type of the parameter value. If an internal method explicitly returns a value, its parameter list is followed by the symbol “→” and the type name of the returned value. The type names used in signatures refer to the types defined in clause 6 augmented by the following additional names. “any” means the value may be any ECMAScript language type.

In addition to its parameters, an internal method always has access to the object that is the target of the method invocation.

An internal method implicitly returns a Completion Record, either a normal completion that wraps a value of the return type shown in its invocation pattern, or a throw completion.

Table 6: Essential Internal Methods
Internal Method Signature Description
[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( ) → Object | Null Determine the object that provides inherited properties for this object. A null value indicates that there are no inherited properties.
[[SetPrototypeOf]] (Object | Null) → Boolean Associate this object with another object that provides inherited properties. Passing null indicates that there are no inherited properties. Returns true indicating that the operation was completed successfully or false indicating that the operation was not successful.
[[IsExtensible]] ( ) → Boolean Determine whether it is permitted to add additional properties to this object.
[[PreventExtensions]] ( ) → Boolean Control whether new properties may be added to this object. Returns true if the operation was successful or false if the operation was unsuccessful.
[[GetOwnProperty]] (propertyKey) → Undefined | Property Descriptor Return a Property Descriptor for the own property of this object whose key is propertyKey, or undefined if no such property exists.
[[DefineOwnProperty]] (propertyKey, PropertyDescriptor) → Boolean Create or alter the own property, whose key is propertyKey, to have the state described by PropertyDescriptor. Return true if that property was successfully created/updated or false if the property could not be created or updated.
[[HasProperty]] (propertyKey) → Boolean Return a Boolean value indicating whether this object already has either an own or inherited property whose key is propertyKey.
[[Get]] (propertyKey, Receiver) → any Return the value of the property whose key is propertyKey from this object. If any ECMAScript code must be executed to retrieve the property value, Receiver is used as the this value when evaluating the code.
[[Set]] (propertyKey, value, Receiver) → Boolean Set the value of the property whose key is propertyKey to value. If any ECMAScript code must be executed to set the property value, Receiver is used as the this value when evaluating the code. Returns true if the property value was set or false if it could not be set.
[[Delete]] (propertyKey) → Boolean Remove the own property whose key is propertyKey from this object. Return false if the property was not deleted and is still present. Return true if the property was deleted or is not present.
[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( ) → List of propertyKey Return a List whose elements are all of the own property keys for the object.

Table 7 summarizes additional essential internal methods that are supported by objects that may be called as functions. A function object is an object that supports the [[Call]] internal method. A constructor is an object that supports the [[Construct]] internal method. Every object that supports [[Construct]] must support [[Call]]; that is, every constructor must be a function object. Therefore, a constructor may also be referred to as a constructor function or constructor function object.

Table 7: Additional Essential Internal Methods of Function Objects
Internal Method Signature Description
[[Call]] (any, a List of any) → any Executes code associated with this object. Invoked via a function call expression. The arguments to the internal method are a this value and a list containing the arguments passed to the function by a call expression. Objects that implement this internal method are callable.
[[Construct]] (a List of any, Object) → Object Creates an object. Invoked via the new operator or a super call. The first argument to the internal method is a list containing the arguments of the constructor invocation or the super call. The second argument is the object to which the new operator was initially applied. Objects that implement this internal method are called constructors. A function object is not necessarily a constructor and such non-constructor function objects do not have a [[Construct]] internal method.

The semantics of the essential internal methods for ordinary objects and standard exotic objects are specified in clause 9. If any specified use of an internal method of an exotic object is not supported by an implementation, that usage must throw a TypeError exception when attempted.

6.1.7.3 Invariants of the Essential Internal Methods

The Internal Methods of Objects of an ECMAScript engine must conform to the list of invariants specified below. Ordinary ECMAScript Objects as well as all standard exotic objects in this specification maintain these invariants. ECMAScript Proxy objects maintain these invariants by means of runtime checks on the result of traps invoked on the [[ProxyHandler]] object.

Any implementation provided exotic objects must also maintain these invariants for those objects. Violation of these invariants may cause ECMAScript code to have unpredictable behaviour and create security issues. However, violation of these invariants must never compromise the memory safety of an implementation.

An implementation must not allow these invariants to be circumvented in any manner such as by providing alternative interfaces that implement the functionality of the essential internal methods without enforcing their invariants.

Definitions:

  • The target of an internal method is the object upon which the internal method is called.
  • A target is non-extensible if it has been observed to return false from its [[IsExtensible]] internal method, or true from its [[PreventExtensions]] internal method.
  • A non-existent property is a property that does not exist as an own property on a non-extensible target.
  • All references to SameValue are according to the definition of the SameValue algorithm.

Return value:

The value returned by any internal method must be a Completion Record with either:

  • [[Type]] = normal, [[Target]] = empty, and [[Value]] = a value of the "normal return type" shown below for that internal method, or
  • [[Type]] = throw, [[Target]] = empty, and [[Value]] = any ECMAScript language value.
Note 1

An internal method must not return a completion with [[Type]] = continue, break, or return.

[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

  • The normal return type is either Object or Null.
  • If target is non-extensible, and [[GetPrototypeOf]] returns a value V, then any future calls to [[GetPrototypeOf]] should return the SameValue as V.
Note 2

An object's prototype chain should have finite length (that is, starting from any object, recursively applying the [[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method to its result should eventually lead to the value null). However, this requirement is not enforceable as an object level invariant if the prototype chain includes any exotic objects that do not use the ordinary object definition of [[GetPrototypeOf]]. Such a circular prototype chain may result in infinite loops when accessing object properties.

[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( V )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • If target is non-extensible, [[SetPrototypeOf]] must return false, unless V is the SameValue as the target's observed [[GetPrototypeOf]] value.

[[IsExtensible]] ( )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • If [[IsExtensible]] returns false, all future calls to [[IsExtensible]] on the target must return false.

[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • If [[PreventExtensions]] returns true, all future calls to [[IsExtensible]] on the target must return false and the target is now considered non-extensible.

[[GetOwnProperty]] ( P )

  • The normal return type is either Property Descriptor or Undefined.
  • If the Type of the return value is Property Descriptor, the return value must be a complete property descriptor.
  • If P is described as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property, all future calls to [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P ) must return Property Descritor whose [[Value]] is SameValue as P's [[Value]] attribute.
  • If P's attributes other than [[Writable]] may change over time or if the property might be deleted, then P's [[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
  • If the [[Writable]] attribute may change from false to true, then the [[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
  • If the target is non-extensible and P is non-existent, then all future calls to [[GetOwnProperty]] (P) on the target must describe P as non-existent (i.e. [[GetOwnProperty]] (P) must return undefined).
Note 3

As a consequence of the third invariant, if a property is described as a data property and it may return different values over time, then either or both of the [[Writable]] and [[Configurable]] attributes must be true even if no mechanism to change the value is exposed via the other essential internal methods.

[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( P, Desc )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • [[DefineOwnProperty]] must return false if P has previously been observed as a non-configurable own property of the target, unless either:
    1. P is a writable data property. A non-configurable writable data property can be changed into a non-configurable non-writable data property.
    2. All attributes of Desc are the SameValue as P's attributes.
  • [[DefineOwnProperty]] (P, Desc) must return false if target is non-extensible and P is a non-existent own property. That is, a non-extensible target object cannot be extended with new properties.

[[HasProperty]] ( P )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target, [[HasProperty]] must return true.

[[Get]] ( P, Receiver )

  • The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.
  • If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the target with value V, then [[Get]] must return the SameValue as V.
  • If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose [[Get]] attribute is undefined, the [[Get]] operation must return undefined.

[[Set]] ( P, V, Receiver )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the target, then [[Set]] must return false unless V is the SameValue as P's [[Value]] attribute.
  • If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose [[Set]] attribute is undefined, the [[Set]] operation must return false.

[[Delete]] ( P )

  • The normal return type is Boolean.
  • If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target, [[Delete]] must return false.

[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

  • The normal return type is List.
  • The returned List must not contain any duplicate entries.
  • The Type of each element of the returned List is either String or Symbol.
  • The returned List must contain at least the keys of all non-configurable own properties that have previously been observed.
  • If the object is non-extensible, the returned List must contain only the keys of all own properties of the object that are observable using [[GetOwnProperty]].

[[Call]] ( )

[[Construct]] ( )

  • The normal return type is Object.

6.1.7.4 Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Well-known intrinsics are built-in objects that are explicitly referenced by the algorithms of this specification and which usually have realm-specific identities. Unless otherwise specified each intrinsic object actually corresponds to a set of similar objects, one per realm.

Within this specification a reference such as %name% means the intrinsic object, associated with the current realm, corresponding to the name. A reference such as %name.a.b% means, as if the "b" property of the "a" property of the intrinsic object %name% was accessed prior to any ECMAScript code being evaluated. Determination of the current realm and its intrinsics is described in 8.3. The well-known intrinsics are listed in Table 8.

Table 8: Well-Known Intrinsic Objects
Intrinsic Name Global Name ECMAScript Language Association
%Array% Array The Array constructor (22.1.1)
%ArrayBuffer% ArrayBuffer The ArrayBuffer constructor (24.1.2)
%ArrayBufferPrototype% ArrayBuffer.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %ArrayBuffer%; i.e., %ArrayBuffer.prototype%
%ArrayIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Array iterator objects (22.1.5); i.e., %ArrayIterator.prototype%
%ArrayPrototype% Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Array% (22.1.3); i.e., %Array.prototype%
%ArrayProto_entries% Array.prototype.entries The initial value of the "entries" data property of %Array.prototype% (22.1.3.4); i.e., %Array.prototype.entries%
%ArrayProto_forEach% Array.prototype.forEach The initial value of the "forEach" data property of %Array.prototype% (22.1.3.12); i.e., %Array.prototype.forEach%
%ArrayProto_keys% Array.prototype.keys The initial value of the "keys" data property of %Array.prototype% (22.1.3.16); i.e., %Array.prototype.keys%
%ArrayProto_values% Array.prototype.values The initial value of the "values" data property of %Array.prototype% (22.1.3.32); i.e., %Array.prototype.values%
%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype% The prototype of async-from-sync iterator objects (25.1.4)
%AsyncFunction% The constructor of async function objects (25.7.1)
%AsyncFunctionPrototype% The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %AsyncFunction%; i.e., %AsyncFunction.prototype%
%AsyncGenerator% The initial value of the "prototype" property of %AsyncGeneratorFunction%; i.e., %AsyncGeneratorFunction.prototype%
%AsyncGeneratorFunction% The constructor of async iterator objects (25.3.1)
%AsyncGeneratorPrototype% The initial value of the "prototype" property of %AsyncGenerator%; i.e., %AsyncGenerator.prototype%
%AsyncIteratorPrototype% An object that all standard built-in async iterator objects indirectly inherit from
%Atomics% Atomics The Atomics object (24.4)
%BigInt% BigInt The BigInt constructor (20.2.1)
%BigInt64Array% BigInt64Array The BigInt64Array constructor (22.2)
%BigUint64Array% BigUint64Array The BigUint64Array constructor (22.2)
%Boolean% Boolean The Boolean constructor (19.3.1)
%BooleanPrototype% Boolean.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Boolean% (19.3.3); i.e., %Boolean.prototype%
%DataView% DataView The DataView constructor (24.3.2)
%DataViewPrototype% DataView.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %DataView%; i.e., %DataView.prototype%
%Date% Date The Date constructor (20.4.2)
%DatePrototype% Date.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Date%.; i.e., %Date.prototype%
%decodeURI% decodeURI The decodeURI function (18.2.6.2)
%decodeURIComponent% decodeURIComponent The decodeURIComponent function (18.2.6.3)
%encodeURI% encodeURI The encodeURI function (18.2.6.4)
%encodeURIComponent% encodeURIComponent The encodeURIComponent function (18.2.6.5)
%Error% Error The Error constructor (19.5.1)
%ErrorPrototype% Error.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Error%; i.e., %Error.prototype%
%eval% eval The eval function (18.2.1)
%EvalError% EvalError The EvalError constructor (19.5.5.1)
%EvalErrorPrototype% EvalError.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %EvalError%; i.e., %EvalError.prototype%
%Float32Array% Float32Array The Float32Array constructor (22.2)
%Float32ArrayPrototype% Float32Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Float32Array%; i.e., %Float32Array.prototype%
%Float64Array% Float64Array The Float64Array constructor (22.2)
%Float64ArrayPrototype% Float64Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Float64Array%; i.e., %Float64Array.prototype%
%ForInIteratorPrototype% The prototype of For-In iterator objects (13.7.5.16)
%Function% Function The Function constructor (19.2.1)
%FunctionPrototype% Function.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Function%; i.e., %Function.prototype%
%Generator% The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %GeneratorFunction%
%GeneratorFunction% The constructor of generator objects (25.2.1)
%GeneratorPrototype% The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Generator%; i.e., %Generator.prototype%
%Int8Array% Int8Array The Int8Array constructor (22.2)
%Int8ArrayPrototype% Int8Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Int8Array%; i.e., %Int8Array.prototype%
%Int16Array% Int16Array The Int16Array constructor (22.2)
%Int16ArrayPrototype% Int16Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Int16Array%; i.e., %Int16Array.prototype%
%Int32Array% Int32Array The Int32Array constructor (22.2)
%Int32ArrayPrototype% Int32Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Int32Array%; i.e., %Int32Array.prototype%
%isFinite% isFinite The isFinite function (18.2.2)
%isNaN% isNaN The isNaN function (18.2.3)
%IteratorPrototype% An object that all standard built-in iterator objects indirectly inherit from
%JSON% JSON The JSON object (24.5)
%JSONParse% JSON.parse The initial value of the "parse" data property of %JSON%; i.e., %JSON.parse%
%JSONStringify% JSON.stringify The initial value of the "stringify" data property of %JSON%; i.e., %JSON.stringify%
%Map% Map The Map constructor (23.1.1)
%MapIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Map iterator objects (23.1.5)
%MapPrototype% Map.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Map%; i.e., %Map.prototype%
%Math% Math The Math object (20.3)
%Number% Number The Number constructor (20.1.1)
%NumberPrototype% Number.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Number%; i.e., %Number.prototype%
%Object% Object The Object constructor (19.1.1)
%ObjectPrototype% Object.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Object% (19.1.3); i.e., %Object.prototype%
%ObjProto_toString% Object.prototype.toString The initial value of the "toString" data property of %Object.prototype% (19.1.3.6); i.e., %Object.prototype.toString%
%ObjProto_valueOf% Object.prototype.valueOf The initial value of the "valueOf" data property of %Object.prototype% (19.1.3.7); i.e., %Object.prototype.valueOf%
%parseFloat% parseFloat The parseFloat function (18.2.4)
%parseInt% parseInt The parseInt function (18.2.5)
%Promise% Promise The Promise constructor (25.6.3)
%PromisePrototype% Promise.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Promise%; i.e., %Promise.prototype%
%PromiseProto_then% Promise.prototype.then The initial value of the "then" data property of %Promise.prototype% (25.6.5.4); i.e., %Promise.prototype.then%
%Promise_all% Promise.all The initial value of the "all" data property of %Promise% (25.6.4.1); i.e., %Promise.all%
%Promise_reject% Promise.reject The initial value of the "reject" data property of %Promise% (25.6.4.5); i.e., %Promise.reject%
%Promise_resolve% Promise.resolve The initial value of the "resolve" data property of %Promise% (25.6.4.6); i.e., %Promise.resolve%
%Proxy% Proxy The Proxy constructor (26.2.1)
%RangeError% RangeError The RangeError constructor (19.5.5.2)
%RangeErrorPrototype% RangeError.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %RangeError%; i.e., %RangeError.prototype%
%ReferenceError% ReferenceError The ReferenceError constructor (19.5.5.3)
%ReferenceErrorPrototype% ReferenceError.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %ReferenceError%; i.e., %ReferenceError.prototype%
%Reflect% Reflect The Reflect object (26.1)
%RegExp% RegExp The RegExp constructor (21.2.3)
%RegExpPrototype% RegExp.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %RegExp%; i.e., %RegExp.prototype%
%RegExpStringIteratorPrototype% The prototype of RegExp String Iterator objects (21.2.7)
%Set% Set The Set constructor (23.2.1)
%SetIteratorPrototype% The prototype of Set iterator objects (23.2.5)
%SetPrototype% Set.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Set%; i.e., %Set.prototype%
%SharedArrayBuffer% SharedArrayBuffer The SharedArrayBuffer constructor (24.2.2)
%SharedArrayBufferPrototype% SharedArrayBuffer.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %SharedArrayBuffer%; i.e., %SharedArrayBuffer.prototype%
%String% String The String constructor (21.1.1)
%StringIteratorPrototype% The prototype of String iterator objects (21.1.5)
%StringPrototype% String.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %String%; i.e., %String.prototype%
%Symbol% Symbol The Symbol constructor (19.4.1)
%SymbolPrototype% Symbol.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Symbol% (19.4.3); i.e., %Symbol.prototype%
%SyntaxError% SyntaxError The SyntaxError constructor (19.5.5.4)
%SyntaxErrorPrototype% SyntaxError.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %SyntaxError%; i.e., %SyntaxError.prototype%
%ThrowTypeError% A function object that unconditionally throws a new instance of %TypeError%
%TypedArray% The super class of all typed Array constructors (22.2.1)
%TypedArrayPrototype% The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %TypedArray%; i.e., %TypedArray.prototype%
%TypeError% TypeError The TypeError constructor (19.5.5.5)
%TypeErrorPrototype% TypeError.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %TypeError%; i.e., %TypeError.prototype%
%Uint8Array% Uint8Array The Uint8Array constructor (22.2)
%Uint8ArrayPrototype% Uint8Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Uint8Array%; i.e., %Uint8Array.prototype%
%Uint8ClampedArray% Uint8ClampedArray The Uint8ClampedArray constructor (22.2)
%Uint8ClampedArrayPrototype% Uint8ClampedArray.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Uint8ClampedArray%; i.e., %Uint8ClampedArray.prototype%
%Uint16Array% Uint16Array The Uint16Array constructor (22.2)
%Uint16ArrayPrototype% Uint16Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Uint16Array%; i.e., %Uint16Array.prototype%
%Uint32Array% Uint32Array The Uint32Array constructor (22.2)
%Uint32ArrayPrototype% Uint32Array.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %Uint32Array%; i.e., %Uint32Array.prototype%
%URIError% URIError The URIError constructor (19.5.5.6)
%URIErrorPrototype% URIError.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %URIError%; i.e., %URIError.prototype%
%WeakMap% WeakMap The WeakMap constructor (23.3.1)
%WeakMapPrototype% WeakMap.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %WeakMap%; i.e., %WeakMap.prototype%
%WeakSet% WeakSet The WeakSet constructor (23.4.1)
%WeakSetPrototype% WeakSet.prototype The initial value of the "prototype" data property of %WeakSet%; i.e., %WeakSet.prototype%

6.2 ECMAScript Specification Types

A specification type corresponds to meta-values that are used within algorithms to describe the semantics of ECMAScript language constructs and ECMAScript language types. The specification types include Reference, List, Completion, Property Descriptor, Lexical Environment, Environment Record, Abstract Closure, and Data Block. Specification type values are specification artefacts that do not necessarily correspond to any specific entity within an ECMAScript implementation. Specification type values may be used to describe intermediate results of ECMAScript expression evaluation but such values cannot be stored as properties of objects or values of ECMAScript language variables.

6.2.1 The List and Record Specification Types

The List type is used to explain the evaluation of argument lists (see 12.3.8) in new expressions, in function calls, and in other algorithms where a simple ordered list of values is needed. Values of the List type are simply ordered sequences of list elements containing the individual values. These sequences may be of any length. The elements of a list may be randomly accessed using 0-origin indices. For notational convenience an array-like syntax can be used to access List elements. For example, arguments[2] is shorthand for saying the 3rd element of the List arguments.

For notational convenience within this specification, a literal syntax can be used to express a new List value. For example, « 1, 2 » defines a List value that has two elements each of which is initialized to a specific value. A new empty List can be expressed as « ».

The Record type is used to describe data aggregations within the algorithms of this specification. A Record type value consists of one or more named fields. The value of each field is either an ECMAScript value or an abstract value represented by a name associated with the Record type. Field names are always enclosed in double brackets, for example [[Value]].

For notational convenience within this specification, an object literal-like syntax can be used to express a Record value. For example, { [[Field1]]: 42, [[Field2]]: false, [[Field3]]: empty } defines a Record value that has three fields, each of which is initialized to a specific value. Field name order is not significant. Any fields that are not explicitly listed are considered to be absent.

In specification text and algorithms, dot notation may be used to refer to a specific field of a Record value. For example, if R is the record shown in the previous paragraph then R.[[Field2]] is shorthand for “the field of R named [[Field2]]”.

Schema for commonly used Record field combinations may be named, and that name may be used as a prefix to a literal Record value to identify the specific kind of aggregations that is being described. For example: PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 42, [[Writable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }.

6.2.2 The Set and Relation Specification Types

The Set type is used to explain a collection of unordered elements for use in the memory model. Values of the Set type are simple collections of elements, where no element appears more than once. Elements may be added to and removed from Sets. Sets may be unioned, intersected, or subtracted from each other.

The Relation type is used to explain constraints on Sets. Values of the Relation type are Sets of ordered pairs of values from its value domain. For example, a Relation on events is a set of ordered pairs of events. For a Relation R and two values a and b in the value domain of R, a R b is shorthand for saying the ordered pair (a, b) is a member of R. A Relation is least with respect to some conditions when it is the smallest Relation that satisfies those conditions.

A strict partial order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

  • For all a, b, and c in R's domain:

    • It is not the case that a R a, and
    • If a R b and b R c, then a R c.
Note 1

The two properties above are called, in order, irreflexivity and transitivity.

A strict total order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

  • For all a, b, and c in R's domain:

    • a is identical to b or a R b or b R a, and
    • It is not the case that a R a, and
    • If a R b and b R c, then a R c.
Note 2

The three properties above are called, in order, totality, irreflexivity, and transitivity.

6.2.3 The Completion Record Specification Type

The Completion type is a Record used to explain the runtime propagation of values and control flow such as the behaviour of statements (break, continue, return and throw) that perform nonlocal transfers of control.

Values of the Completion type are Record values whose fields are defined as by Table 9. Such values are referred to as Completion Records.

Table 9: Completion Record Fields
Field Name Value Meaning
[[Type]] One of normal, break, continue, return, or throw The type of completion that occurred.
[[Value]] any ECMAScript language value or empty The value that was produced.
[[Target]] any ECMAScript string or empty The target label for directed control transfers.

The term “abrupt completion” refers to any completion with a [[Type]] value other than normal.

6.2.3.1 Await

Algorithm steps that say

  1. Let completion be Await(value).

mean the same thing as:

  1. Let asyncContext be the running execution context.
  2. Let promise be ? PromiseResolve(%Promise%, value).
  3. Let stepsFulfilled be the algorithm steps defined in Await Fulfilled Functions.
  4. Let onFulfilled be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsFulfilled, « [[AsyncContext]] »).
  5. Set onFulfilled.[[AsyncContext]] to asyncContext.
  6. Let stepsRejected be the algorithm steps defined in Await Rejected Functions.
  7. Let onRejected be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsRejected, « [[AsyncContext]] »).
  8. Set onRejected.[[AsyncContext]] to asyncContext.
  9. Perform ! PerformPromiseThen(promise, onFulfilled, onRejected).
  10. Remove asyncContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
  11. Set the code evaluation state of asyncContext such that when evaluation is resumed with a Completion completion, the following steps of the algorithm that invoked Await will be performed, with completion available.
  12. Return.
  13. NOTE: This returns to the evaluation of the operation that had most previously resumed evaluation of asyncContext.

where all variables in the above steps, with the exception of completion, are ephemeral and visible only in the steps pertaining to Await.

Note

Await can be combined with the ? and ! prefixes, so that for example

  1. Let result be ? Await(value).

means the same thing as:

  1. Let result be Await(value).
  2. ReturnIfAbrupt(result).

6.2.3.1.1 Await Fulfilled Functions

An Await fulfilled function is an anonymous built-in function that is used as part of the Await specification device to deliver the promise fulfillment value to the caller as a normal completion. Each Await fulfilled function has an [[AsyncContext]] internal slot.

When an Await fulfilled function is called with argument value, the following steps are taken:

  1. Let F be the active function object.
  2. Let asyncContext be F.[[AsyncContext]].
  3. Let prevContext be the running execution context.
  4. Suspend prevContext.
  5. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
  6. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using NormalCompletion(value) as the result of the operation that suspended it.
  7. Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
  8. Return undefined.

The "length" property of an Await fulfilled function is 1.

6.2.3.1.2 Await Rejected Functions

An Await rejected function is an anonymous built-in function that is used as part of the Await specification device to deliver the promise rejection reason to the caller as an abrupt throw completion. Each Await rejected function has an [[AsyncContext]] internal slot.

When an Await rejected function is called with argument reason, the following steps are taken:

  1. Let F be the active function object.
  2. Let asyncContext be F.[[AsyncContext]].
  3. Let prevContext be the running execution context.
  4. Suspend prevContext.
  5. Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
  6. Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using ThrowCompletion(reason) as the result of the operation that suspended it.
  7. Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
  8. Return undefined.

The "length" property of an Await rejected function is 1.

6.2.3.2 NormalCompletion

The abstract operation NormalCompletion with a single argument, such as:

  1. Return NormalCompletion(argument).

Is a shorthand that is defined as follows:

  1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: normal, [[Value]]: argument, [[Target]]: empty }.

6.2.3.3 ThrowCompletion

The abstract operation ThrowCompletion with a single argument, such as:

  1. Return ThrowCompletion(argument).

Is a shorthand that is defined as follows:

  1. Return Completion { [[Type]]: throw, [[Value]]: argument, [[Target]]: empty }.

6.2.3.4 UpdateEmpty ( completionRecord, value )

The abstract operation UpdateEmpty with arguments completionRecord and value performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: If completionRecord.[[Type]] is either return or throw, then completionRecord.[[Value]] is not empty.
  2. If completionRecord.[[Value]] is not empty, return Completion(completionRecord).
  3. Return Completion { [[Type]]: completionRecord.[[Type]], [[Value]]: value, [[Target]]: completionRecord.[[Target]] }.

6.2.4 The Reference Specification Type

Note

The Reference type is used to explain the behaviour of such operators as delete, typeof, the assignment operators, the super keyword and other language features. For example, the left-hand operand of an assignment is expected to produce a reference.

A Reference is a resolved name or property binding. A Reference consists of three components, the base value component, the referenced name component, and the Boolean-valued strict reference flag. The base value component is either undefined, an Object, a Boolean, a String, a Symbol, a Number, a BigInt, or an Environment Record. A base value component of undefined indicates that the Reference could not be resolved to a binding. The referenced name component is a String or Symbol value.

A Super Reference is a Reference that is used to represent a name binding that was expressed using the super keyword. A Super Reference has an additional thisValue component, and its base value component will never be an Environment Record.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate on references:

6.2.4.1 GetBase ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. Return the base value component of V.

6.2.4.2 GetReferencedName ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. Return the referenced name component of V.

6.2.4.3 IsStrictReference ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. Return the strict reference flag of V.

6.2.4.4 HasPrimitiveBase ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. If Type(V's base value component) is Boolean, String, Symbol, BigInt, or Number, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.5 IsPropertyReference ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. If either the base value component of V is an Object or HasPrimitiveBase(V) is true, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.6 IsUnresolvableReference ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. If the base value component of V is undefined, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.7 IsSuperReference ( V )

  1. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  2. If V has a thisValue component, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.8 GetValue ( V )

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
  2. If Type(V) is not Reference, return V.
  3. Let base be GetBase(V).
  4. If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
  5. If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
    1. If HasPrimitiveBase(V) is true, then
      1. Assert: In this case, base will never be undefined or null.
      2. Set base to ! ToObject(base).
    2. Return ? base.[[Get]](GetReferencedName(V), GetThisValue(V)).
  6. Else,
    1. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
    2. Return ? base.GetBindingValue(GetReferencedName(V), IsStrictReference(V)) (see 8.1.1).
 Note

The object that may be created in step 5.a.ii is not accessible outside of the above abstract operation and the ordinary object [[Get]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of the object.

6.2.4.9 PutValue ( V, W )

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
  2. ReturnIfAbrupt(W).
  3. If Type(V) is not Reference, throw a ReferenceError exception.
  4. Let base be GetBase(V).
  5. If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, then
    1. If IsStrictReference(V) is true, then
      1. Throw a ReferenceError exception.
    2. Let globalObj be GetGlobalObject().
    3. Return ? Set(globalObj, GetReferencedName(V), W, false).
  6. Else if IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
    1. If HasPrimitiveBase(V) is true, then
      1. Assert: In this case, base will never be undefined or null.
      2. Set base to ! ToObject(base).
    2. Let succeeded be ? base.[[Set]](GetReferencedName(V), W, GetThisValue(V)).
    3. If succeeded is false and IsStrictReference(V) is true, throw a TypeError exception.
    4. Return.
  7. Else,
    1. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
    2. Return ? base.SetMutableBinding(GetReferencedName(V), W, IsStrictReference(V)) (see 8.1.1).
 Note

The object that may be created in step 6.a.ii is not accessible outside of the above algorithm and the ordinary object [[Set]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of that object.

6.2.4.10 GetThisValue ( V )

  1. Assert: IsPropertyReference(V) is true.
  2. If IsSuperReference(V) is true, then
    1. Return the value of the thisValue component of the reference V.
  3. Return GetBase(V).

6.2.4.11 InitializeReferencedBinding ( V, W )

  1. ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
  2. ReturnIfAbrupt(W).
  3. Assert: Type(V) is Reference.
  4. Assert: IsUnresolvableReference(V) is false.
  5. Let base be GetBase(V).
  6. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
  7. Return base.InitializeBinding(GetReferencedName(V), W).

6.2.5 The Property Descriptor Specification Type

The Property Descriptor type is used to explain the manipulation and reification of Object property attributes. Values of the Property Descriptor type are Records. Each field's name is an attribute name and its value is a corresponding attribute value as specified in 6.1.7.1. In addition, any field may be present or absent. The schema name used within this specification to tag literal descriptions of Property Descriptor records is “PropertyDescriptor”.

Property Descriptor values may be further classified as data Property Descriptors and accessor Property Descriptors based upon the existence or use of certain fields. A data Property Descriptor is one that includes any fields named either [[Value]] or [[Writable]]. An accessor Property Descriptor is one that includes any fields named either [[Get]] or [[Set]]. Any Property Descriptor may have fields named [[Enumerable]] and [[Configurable]]. A Property Descriptor value may not be both a data Property Descriptor and an accessor Property Descriptor; however, it may be neither. A generic Property Descriptor is a Property Descriptor value that is neither a data Property Descriptor nor an accessor Property Descriptor. A fully populated Property Descriptor is one that is either an accessor Property Descriptor or a data Property Descriptor and that has all of the fields that correspond to the property attributes defined in either Table 3 or Table 4.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Property Descriptor values:

6.2.5.1 IsAccessorDescriptor ( Desc )

When the abstract operation IsAccessorDescriptor is called with Property Descriptor Desc, the following steps are taken:

  1. If Desc is undefined, return false.
  2. If both Desc.[[Get]] and Desc.[[Set]] are absent, return false.
  3. Return true.

6.2.5.2 IsDataDescriptor ( Desc )

When the abstract operation IsDataDescriptor is called with Property Descriptor Desc, the following steps are taken:

  1. If Desc is undefined, return false.
  2. If both Desc.[[Value]] and Desc.[[Writable]] are absent, return false.
  3. Return true.

6.2.5.3 IsGenericDescriptor ( Desc )

When the abstract operation IsGenericDescriptor is called with Property Descriptor Desc, the following steps are taken:

  1. If Desc is undefined, return false.
  2. If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) are both false, return true.
  3. Return false.

6.2.5.4 FromPropertyDescriptor ( Desc )

When the abstract operation FromPropertyDescriptor is called with Property Descriptor Desc, the following steps are taken:

  1. If Desc is undefined, return undefined.
  2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
  3. Assert: obj is an extensible ordinary object with no own properties.
  4. If Desc has a [[Value]] field, then
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", Desc.[[Value]]).
  5. If Desc has a [[Writable]] field, then
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "writable", Desc.[[Writable]]).
  6. If Desc has a [[Get]] field, then
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "get", Desc.[[Get]]).
  7. If Desc has a [[Set]] field, then
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "set", Desc.[[Set]]).
  8. If Desc has an [[Enumerable]] field, then
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "enumerable", Desc.[[Enumerable]]).
  9. If Desc has a [[Configurable]] field, then
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "configurable", Desc.[[Configurable]]).
  10. Return obj.

6.2.5.5 ToPropertyDescriptor ( Obj )

When the abstract operation ToPropertyDescriptor is called with object Obj, the following steps are taken:

  1. If Type(Obj) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  2. Let desc be a new Property Descriptor that initially has no fields.
  3. Let hasEnumerable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "enumerable").
  4. If hasEnumerable is true, then
    1. Let enumerable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "enumerable")).
    2. Set desc.[[Enumerable]] to enumerable.
  5. Let hasConfigurable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "configurable").
  6. If hasConfigurable is true, then
    1. Let configurable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "configurable")).
    2. Set desc.[[Configurable]] to configurable.
  7. Let hasValue be ? HasProperty(Obj, "value").
  8. If hasValue is true, then
    1. Let value be ? Get(Obj, "value").
    2. Set desc.[[Value]] to value.
  9. Let hasWritable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "writable").
  10. If hasWritable is true, then
    1. Let writable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "writable")).
    2. Set desc.[[Writable]] to writable.
  11. Let hasGet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "get").
  12. If hasGet is true, then
    1. Let getter be ? Get(Obj, "get").
    2. If IsCallable(getter) is false and getter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
    3. Set desc.[[Get]] to getter.
  13. Let hasSet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "set").
  14. If hasSet is true, then
    1. Let setter be ? Get(Obj, "set").
    2. If IsCallable(setter) is false and setter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
    3. Set desc.[[Set]] to setter.
  15. If desc.[[Get]] is present or desc.[[Set]] is present, then
    1. If desc.[[Value]] is present or desc.[[Writable]] is present, throw a TypeError exception.
  16. Return desc.

6.2.5.6 CompletePropertyDescriptor ( Desc )

When the abstract operation CompletePropertyDescriptor is called with Property Descriptor Desc, the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: Desc is a Property Descriptor.
  2. Let like be the Record { [[Value]]: undefined, [[Writable]]: false, [[Get]]: undefined, [[Set]]: undefined, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }.
  3. If IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is true or IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
    1. If Desc does not have a [[Value]] field, set Desc.[[Value]] to like.[[Value]].
    2. If Desc does not have a [[Writable]] field, set Desc.[[Writable]] to like.[[Writable]].
  4. Else,
    1. If Desc does not have a [[Get]] field, set Desc.[[Get]] to like.[[Get]].
    2. If Desc does not have a [[Set]] field, set Desc.[[Set]] to like.[[Set]].
  5. If Desc does not have an [[Enumerable]] field, set Desc.[[Enumerable]] to like.[[Enumerable]].
  6. If Desc does not have a [[Configurable]] field, set Desc.[[Configurable]] to like.[[Configurable]].
  7. Return Desc.

6.2.6 The Lexical Environment and Environment Record Specification Types

The Lexical Environment and Environment Record types are used to explain the behaviour of name resolution in nested functions and blocks. These types and the operations upon them are defined in 8.1.

6.2.7 The Abstract Closure Specification Type

The abstract closure specification type is used to refer to algorithm steps together with a collection of values. Abstract closures are meta-values and are invoked using function application style such as closure(arg1, arg2). Like abstract operations, invocations perform the algorithm steps described by the abstract closure.

In algorithm steps that create an abstract closure, values are captured with the verb "capture" followed by a list of aliases. When an abstract closure is created, it captures the value that is associated with each alias at that time. In steps that specify the algorithm to be performed when an abstract closure is called, each captured value is referred to by the alias that was used to capture the value.

If an abstract closure returns a Completion Record, that Completion Record's [[Type]] must be either normal or throw.

Abstract closures are created inline as part of other algorithms, shown in the following example.

  1. Let addend be 41.
  2. Let closure be a new abstract closure with parameters (x) that captures addend and performs the following steps when called:
    1. Return x + addend.
  3. Let val be closure(1).
  4. Assert: val is 42.

6.2.8 Data Blocks

The Data Block specification type is used to describe a distinct and mutable sequence of byte-sized (8 bit) numeric values. A Data Block value is created with a fixed number of bytes that each have the initial value 0.

For notational convenience within this specification, an array-like syntax can be used to access the individual bytes of a Data Block value. This notation presents a Data Block value as a 0-origined integer-indexed sequence of bytes. For example, if db is a 5 byte Data Block value then db[2] can be used to access its 3rd byte.

A data block that resides in memory that can be referenced from multiple agents concurrently is designated a Shared Data Block. A Shared Data Block has an identity (for the purposes of equality testing Shared Data Block values) that is address-free: it is tied not to the virtual addresses the block is mapped to in any process, but to the set of locations in memory that the block represents. Two data blocks are equal only if the sets of the locations they contain are equal; otherwise, they are not equal and the intersection of the sets of locations they contain is empty. Finally, Shared Data Blocks can be distinguished from Data Blocks.

The semantics of Shared Data Blocks is defined using Shared Data Block events by the memory model. Abstract operations below introduce Shared Data Block events and act as the interface between evaluation semantics and the event semantics of the memory model. The events form a candidate execution, on which the memory model acts as a filter. Please consult the memory model for full semantics.

Shared Data Block events are modeled by Records, defined in the memory model.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Data Block values:

6.2.8.1 CreateByteDataBlock ( size )

When the abstract operation CreateByteDataBlock is called with integer argument size, the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: size ≥ 0.
  2. Let db be a new Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a Data Block, throw a RangeError exception.
  3. Set all of the bytes of db to 0.
  4. Return db.

6.2.8.2 CreateSharedByteDataBlock ( size )

When the abstract operation CreateSharedByteDataBlock is called with integer argument size, the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: size ≥ 0.
  2. Let db be a new Shared Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a Shared Data Block, throw a RangeError exception.
  3. Let execution be the [[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
  4. Let eventList be the [[EventList]] field of the element in execution.[[EventsRecords]] whose [[AgentSignifier]] is AgentSignifier().
  5. Let zero be « 0 ».
  6. For each index i of db, do
    1. Append WriteSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Init, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: db, [[ByteIndex]]: i, [[ElementSize]]: 1, [[Payload]]: zero } to eventList.
  7. Return db.

6.2.8.3 CopyDataBlockBytes ( toBlock, toIndex, fromBlock, fromIndex, count )

When the abstract operation CopyDataBlockBytes is called, the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: fromBlock and toBlock are distinct Data Block or Shared Data Block values.
  2. Assert: fromIndex, toIndex, and count are integer values ≥ 0.
  3. Let fromSize be the number of bytes in fromBlock.
  4. Assert: fromIndex + count ≤ fromSize.
  5. Let toSize be the number of bytes in toBlock.
  6. Assert: toIndex + count ≤ toSize.
  7. Repeat, while count > 0
    1. If fromBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
      1. Let execution be the [[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
      2. Let eventList be the [[EventList]] field of the element in execution.[[EventsRecords]] whose [[AgentSignifier]] is AgentSignifier().
      3. Let bytes be a List of length 1 that contains a nondeterministically chosen byte value.
      4. NOTE: In implementations, bytes is the result of a non-atomic read instruction on the underlying hardware. The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the memory model to describe observable behaviour of hardware with weak consistency.
      5. Let readEvent be ReadSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Unordered, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: fromBlock, [[ByteIndex]]: fromIndex, [[ElementSize]]: 1 }.
      6. Append readEvent to eventList.
      7. Append Chosen Value Record { [[Event]]: readEvent, [[ChosenValue]]: bytes } to execution.[[ChosenValues]].
      8. If toBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
        1. Append WriteSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Unordered, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: toBlock, [[ByteIndex]]: toIndex, [[ElementSize]]: 1, [[Payload]]: bytes } to eventList.
      9. Else,
        1. Set toBlock[toIndex] to bytes[0].
    2. Else,
      1. Assert: toBlock is not a Shared Data Block.
      2. Set toBlock[toIndex] to fromBlock[fromIndex].
    3. Set toIndex to toIndex + 1.
    4. Set fromIndex to fromIndex + 1.
    5. Set count to count - 1.
  8. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

7 Abstract Operations

These operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined here to solely to aid the specification of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other, more specialized abstract operations are defined throughout this specification.

7.1 Type Conversion

The ECMAScript language implicitly performs automatic type conversion as needed. To clarify the semantics of certain constructs it is useful to define a set of conversion abstract operations. The conversion abstract operations are polymorphic; they can accept a value of any ECMAScript language type. But no other specification types are used with these operations.

The BigInt type has no implicit conversions in the ECMAScript language; programmers must call BigInt explicitly to convert values from other types.

7.1.1 ToPrimitive ( input [ , PreferredType ] )

The abstract operation ToPrimitive takes an input argument and an optional argument PreferredType. The abstract operation ToPrimitive converts its input argument to a non-Object type. If an object is capable of converting to more than one primitive type, it may use the optional hint PreferredType to favour that type. Conversion occurs according to the following algorithm:

  1. Assert: input is an ECMAScript language value.
  2. If Type(input) is Object, then
    1. If PreferredType is not present, let hint be "default".
    2. Else if PreferredType is hint String, let hint be "string".
    3. Else,
      1. Assert: PreferredType is hint Number.
      2. Let hint be "number".
    4. Let exoticToPrim be ? GetMethod(input, @@toPrimitive).
    5. If exoticToPrim is not undefined, then
      1. Let result be ? Call(exoticToPrim, input, « hint »).
      2. If Type(result) is not Object, return result.
      3. Throw a TypeError exception.
    6. If hint is "default", set hint to "number".
    7. Return ? OrdinaryToPrimitive(input, hint).
  3. Return input.
 Note

When ToPrimitive is called with no hint, then it generally behaves as if the hint were Number. However, objects may over-ride this behaviour by defining a @@toPrimitive method. Of the objects defined in this specification only Date objects (see 20.4.4.45) and Symbol objects (see 19.4.3.5) over-ride the default ToPrimitive behaviour. Date objects treat no hint as if the hint were String.

7.1.1.1 OrdinaryToPrimitive ( O, hint )

When the abstract operation OrdinaryToPrimitive is called with arguments O and hint, the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: Type(hint) is String and its value is either "string" or "number".
  3. If hint is "string", then
    1. Let methodNames be « "toString", "valueOf" ».
  4. Else,
    1. Let methodNames be « "valueOf", "toString" ».
  5. For each name in methodNames in List order, do
    1. Let method be ? Get(O, name).
    2. If IsCallable(method) is true, then
      1. Let result be ? Call(method, O).
      2. If Type(result) is not Object, return result.
  6. Throw a TypeError exception.

7.1.2 ToBoolean ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBoolean converts argument to a value of type Boolean according to Table 10:

Table 10: ToBoolean Conversions
Argument Type Result
Undefined Return false.
Null Return false.
Boolean Return argument.
Number If argument is +0, -0, or NaN, return false; otherwise return true.
String If argument is the empty String (its length is zero), return false; otherwise return true.
Symbol Return true.
BigInt If argument is 0n, return false; otherwise return true.
Object Return true.

7.1.3 ToNumeric ( value )

The abstract operation ToNumeric returns value converted to a numeric value of type Number or BigInt. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(value, hint Number).
  2. If Type(primValue) is BigInt, return primValue.
  3. Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

7.1.4 ToNumber ( argument )

The abstract operation ToNumber converts argument to a value of type Number according to Table 11:

Table 11: ToNumber Conversions
Argument Type Result
Undefined Return NaN.
Null Return +0.
Boolean If argument is true, return 1. If argument is false, return +0.
Number Return argument (no conversion).
String See grammar and conversion algorithm below.
Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.
BigInt Throw a TypeError exception.
Object

Apply the following steps:

  1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(argument, hint Number).
  2. Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

7.1.4.1 ToNumber Applied to the String Type

ToNumber applied to Strings applies the following grammar to the input String interpreted as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points (6.1.4). If the grammar cannot interpret the String as an expansion of StringNumericLiteral, then the result of ToNumber is NaN.

Note 1

The terminal symbols of this grammar are all composed of characters in the Unicode Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). Therefore, the result of ToNumber will be NaN if the string contains any leading surrogate or trailing surrogate code units, whether paired or unpaired.

Syntax

StringNumericLiteral:::StrWhiteSpaceopt StrWhiteSpaceoptStrNumericLiteralStrWhiteSpaceopt StrWhiteSpace:::StrWhiteSpaceCharStrWhiteSpaceopt StrWhiteSpaceChar:::WhiteSpace LineTerminator StrNumericLiteral:::StrDecimalLiteral NonDecimalIntegerLiteral StrDecimalLiteral:::StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral +StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral -StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral:::Infinity DecimalDigits.DecimalDigitsoptExponentPartopt .DecimalDigitsExponentPartopt DecimalDigitsExponentPartopt

All grammar symbols not explicitly defined above have the definitions used in the Lexical Grammar for numeric literals (11.8.3)

Note 2

Some differences should be noted between the syntax of a StringNumericLiteral and a NumericLiteral:

7.1.4.1.1 Runtime Semantics: MV

The conversion of a String to a Number value is similar overall to the determination of the Number value for a numeric literal (see 11.8.3), but some of the details are different, so the process for converting a String numeric literal to a value of Number type is given here. This value is determined in two steps: first, a mathematical value (MV) is derived from the String numeric literal; second, this mathematical value is rounded as described below. The MV on any grammar symbol, not provided below, is the MV for that symbol defined in 11.8.3.1.

Once the exact MV for a String numeric literal has been determined, it is then rounded to a value of the Number type. If the MV is 0, then the rounded value is +0 unless the first non white space code point in the String numeric literal is -, in which case the rounded value is -0. Otherwise, the rounded value must be the Number value for the MV (in the sense defined in 6.1.6.1), unless the literal includes a StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral and the literal has more than 20 significant digits, in which case the Number value may be either the Number value for the MV of a literal produced by replacing each significant digit after the 20th with a 0 digit or the Number value for the MV of a literal produced by replacing each significant digit after the 20th with a 0 digit and then incrementing the literal at the 20th digit position. A digit is significant if it is not part of an ExponentPart and

  • it is not 0; or
  • there is a nonzero digit to its left and there is a nonzero digit, not in the ExponentPart, to its right.

7.1.5 ToInteger ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInteger converts argument to an integral Number value. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, or -0, return +0.
  3. If number is +∞ or -∞, return number.
  4. Let integer be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  5. If integer is -0, return +0.
  6. Return integer.

7.1.6 ToInt32 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt32 converts argument to one of 232 integer values in the range -231 through 231 - 1, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, -0, +∞, or -∞, return +0.
  3. Let int be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  4. Let int32bit be int modulo 232.
  5. If int32bit ≥ 231, return int32bit - 232; otherwise return int32bit.
 Note

Given the above definition of ToInt32:

  • The ToInt32 abstract operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it produced, the second application leaves that value unchanged.
  • ToInt32(ToUint32(x)) is equal to ToInt32(x) for all values of x. (It is to preserve this latter property that +∞ and -∞ are mapped to +0.)
  • ToInt32 maps -0 to +0.

7.1.7 ToUint32 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint32 converts argument to one of 232 integer values in the range 0 through 232 - 1, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, -0, +∞, or -∞, return +0.
  3. Let int be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  4. Let int32bit be int modulo 232.
  5. Return int32bit.
 Note

Given the above definition of ToUint32:

  • Step 5 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToInt32.
  • The ToUint32 abstract operation is idempotent: if applied to a result that it produced, the second application leaves that value unchanged.
  • ToUint32(ToInt32(x)) is equal to ToUint32(x) for all values of x. (It is to preserve this latter property that +∞ and -∞ are mapped to +0.)
  • ToUint32 maps -0 to +0.

7.1.8 ToInt16 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt16 converts argument to one of 216 integer values in the range -32768 through 32767, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, -0, +∞, or -∞, return +0.
  3. Let int be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  4. Let int16bit be int modulo 216.
  5. If int16bit ≥ 215, return int16bit - 216; otherwise return int16bit.

7.1.9 ToUint16 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint16 converts argument to one of 216 integer values in the range 0 through 216 - 1, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, -0, +∞, or -∞, return +0.
  3. Let int be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  4. Let int16bit be int modulo 216.
  5. Return int16bit.
 Note

Given the above definition of ToUint16:

  • The substitution of 216 for 232 in step 4 is the only difference between ToUint32 and ToUint16.
  • ToUint16 maps -0 to +0.

7.1.10 ToInt8 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToInt8 converts argument to one of 28 integer values in the range -128 through 127, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, -0, +∞, or -∞, return +0.
  3. Let int be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  4. Let int8bit be int modulo 28.
  5. If int8bit ≥ 27, return int8bit - 28; otherwise return int8bit.

7.1.11 ToUint8 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint8 converts argument to one of 28 integer values in the range 0 through 255, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, +0, -0, +∞, or -∞, return +0.
  3. Let int be the Number value that is the same sign as number and whose magnitude is floor(abs(number)).
  4. Let int8bit be int modulo 28.
  5. Return int8bit.

7.1.12 ToUint8Clamp ( argument )

The abstract operation ToUint8Clamp converts argument to one of 28 integer values in the range 0 through 255, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let number be ? ToNumber(argument).
  2. If number is NaN, return +0.
  3. If number ≤ 0, return +0.
  4. If number ≥ 255, return 255.
  5. Let f be floor(number).
  6. If f + 0.5 < number, return f + 1.
  7. If number < f + 0.5, return f.
  8. If f is odd, return f + 1.
  9. Return f.
 Note

Unlike the other ECMAScript integer conversion abstract operation, ToUint8Clamp rounds rather than truncates non-integer values and does not convert +∞ to 0. ToUint8Clamp does “round half to even” tie-breaking. This differs from Math.round which does “round half up” tie-breaking.

7.1.13 ToBigInt ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigInt converts its argument argument to a BigInt value, or throws if an implicit conversion from Number would be required.

  1. Let prim be ? ToPrimitive(argument, hint Number).
  2. Return the value that prim corresponds to in Table 12.
Table 12: BigInt Conversions
Argument Type Result
Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.
Null Throw a TypeError exception.
Boolean Return 1n if prim is true and 0n if prim is false.
BigInt Return prim.
Number Throw a TypeError exception.
String
  1. Let n be ! StringToBigInt(prim).
  2. If n is NaN, throw a SyntaxError exception.
  3. Return n.
Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.

7.1.14 StringToBigInt ( argument )

Apply the algorithm in 7.1.4.1 with the following changes:

  • Replace the StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral production with DecimalDigits to not allow Infinity, decimal points, or exponents.
  • If the MV is NaN, return NaN, otherwise return the BigInt which exactly corresponds to the MV, rather than rounding to a Number.

7.1.15 ToBigInt64 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigInt64 converts argument to one of 264 integer values in the range -263 through 263-1, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let n be ? ToBigInt(argument).
  2. Let int64bit be n modulo 264.
  3. If int64bit ≥ 263, return int64bit - 264; otherwise return int64bit.

7.1.16 ToBigUint64 ( argument )

The abstract operation ToBigUint64 converts argument to one of 264 integer values in the range 0 through 264-1, inclusive. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Let n be ? ToBigInt(argument).
  2. Let int64bit be n modulo 264.
  3. Return int64bit.

7.1.17 ToString ( argument )

The abstract operation ToString converts argument to a value of type String according to Table 13:

Table 13: ToString Conversions
Argument Type Result
Undefined Return "undefined".
Null Return "null".
Boolean

If argument is true, return "true".

If argument is false, return "false".
Number Return ! Number::toString(argument).
String Return argument.
Symbol Throw a TypeError exception.
BigInt Return ! BigInt::toString(argument).
Object

Apply the following steps:

  1. Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(argument, hint String).
  2. Return ? ToString(primValue).

7.1.18 ToObject ( argument )

The abstract operation ToObject converts argument to a value of type Object according to Table 14:

Table 14: ToObject Conversions
Argument Type Result
Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.
Null Throw a TypeError exception.
Boolean Return a new Boolean object whose [[BooleanData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 19.3 for a description of Boolean objects.
Number Return a new Number object whose [[NumberData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 20.1 for a description of Number objects.
String Return a new String object whose [[StringData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 21.1 for a description of String objects.
Symbol Return a new Symbol object whose [[SymbolData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 19.4 for a description of Symbol objects.
BigInt Return a new BigInt object whose [[BigIntData]] internal slot is set to argument. See 20.2 for a description of BigInt objects.
Object Return argument.

7.1.19 ToPropertyKey ( argument )

The abstract operation ToPropertyKey converts argument to a value that can be used as a property key by performing the following steps:

  1. Let key be ? ToPrimitive(argument, hint String).
  2. If Type(key) is Symbol, then
    1. Return key.
  3. Return ! ToString(key).

7.1.20 ToLength ( argument )

The abstract operation ToLength converts argument to an integer suitable for use as the length of an array-like object. It performs the following steps:

  1. Let len be ? ToInteger(argument).
  2. If len ≤ +0, return +0.
  3. Return min(len, 253 - 1).

7.1.21 CanonicalNumericIndexString ( argument )

The abstract operation CanonicalNumericIndexString returns argument converted to a Number value if it is a String representation of a Number that would be produced by ToString, or the string "-0". Otherwise, it returns undefined. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. Assert: Type(argument) is String.
  2. If argument is "-0", return -0.
  3. Let n be ! ToNumber(argument).
  4. If SameValue(! ToString(n), argument) is false, return undefined.
  5. Return n.

A canonical numeric string is any String value for which the CanonicalNumericIndexString abstract operation does not return undefined.

7.1.22 ToIndex ( value )

The abstract operation ToIndex returns value argument converted to a non-negative integer if it is a valid integer index value. This abstract operation functions as follows:

  1. If value is undefined, then
    1. Let index be 0.
  2. Else,
    1. Let integerIndex be ? ToInteger(value).
    2. If integerIndex < 0, throw a RangeError exception.
    3. Let index be ! ToLength(integerIndex).
    4. If ! SameValue(integerIndex, index) is false, throw a RangeError exception.
  3. Return index.

7.2 Testing and Comparison Operations

7.2.1 RequireObjectCoercible ( argument )

The abstract operation RequireObjectCoercible throws an error if argument is a value that cannot be converted to an Object using ToObject. It is defined by Table 15:

Table 15: RequireObjectCoercible Results
Argument Type Result
Undefined Throw a TypeError exception.
Null Throw a TypeError exception.
Boolean Return argument.
Number Return argument.
String Return argument.
Symbol Return argument.
BigInt Return argument.
Object Return argument.

7.2.2 IsArray ( argument )

The abstract operation IsArray takes one argument argument, and performs the following steps:

  1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.
  2. If argument is an Array exotic object, return true.
  3. If argument is a Proxy exotic object, then
    1. If argument.[[ProxyHandler]] is null, throw a TypeError exception.
    2. Let target be argument.[[ProxyTarget]].
    3. Return ? IsArray(target).
  4. Return false.

7.2.3 IsCallable ( argument )

The abstract operation IsCallable determines if argument, which must be an ECMAScript language value, is a callable function with a [[Call]] internal method.

  1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.
  2. If argument has a [[Call]] internal method, return true.
  3. Return false.

7.2.4 IsConstructor ( argument )

The abstract operation IsConstructor determines if argument, which must be an ECMAScript language value, is a function object with a [[Construct]] internal method.

  1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.
  2. If argument has a [[Construct]] internal method, return true.
  3. Return false.

7.2.5 IsExtensible ( O )

The abstract operation IsExtensible is used to determine whether additional properties can be added to the object that is O. A Boolean value is returned. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Return ? O.[[IsExtensible]]().

7.2.6 IsInteger ( argument )

The abstract operation IsInteger determines if argument is a finite integer Number value.

  1. If Type(argument) is not Number, return false.
  2. If argument is NaN, +∞, or -∞, return false.
  3. If floor(abs(argument)) ≠ abs(argument), return false.
  4. Return true.

7.2.7 IsNonNegativeInteger ( argument )

The abstract operation IsNonNegativeInteger determines if argument is non-negative integer Number value.

  1. If ! IsInteger(argument) is true and argument ≥ 0, return true.
  2. Otherwise, return false.

7.2.8 IsPropertyKey ( argument )

The abstract operation IsPropertyKey determines if argument, which must be an ECMAScript language value, is a value that may be used as a property key.

  1. If Type(argument) is String, return true.
  2. If Type(argument) is Symbol, return true.
  3. Return false.

7.2.9 IsRegExp ( argument )

The abstract operation IsRegExp with argument argument performs the following steps:

  1. If Type(argument) is not Object, return false.
  2. Let matcher be ? Get(argument, @@match).
  3. If matcher is not undefined, return ! ToBoolean(matcher).
  4. If argument has a [[RegExpMatcher]] internal slot, return true.
  5. Return false.

7.2.10 IsStringPrefix ( p, q )

The abstract operation IsStringPrefix determines if String p is a prefix of String q.

  1. Assert: Type(p) is String.
  2. Assert: Type(q) is String.
  3. If q can be the string-concatenation of p and some other String r, return true. Otherwise, return false.
 Note

Any String is a prefix of itself, because r may be the empty String.

7.2.11 SameValue ( x, y )

The internal comparison abstract operation SameValue(x, y), where x and y are ECMAScript language values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

  1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), return false.
  2. If Type(x) is Number or BigInt, then
    1. Return ! Type(x)::sameValue(x, y).
  3. Return ! SameValueNonNumeric(x, y).
 Note

This algorithm differs from the Strict Equality Comparison Algorithm in its treatment of signed zeroes and NaNs.

7.2.12 SameValueZero ( x, y )

The internal comparison abstract operation SameValueZero(x, y), where x and y are ECMAScript language values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

  1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), return false.
  2. If Type(x) is Number or BigInt, then
    1. Return ! Type(x)::sameValueZero(x, y).
  3. Return ! SameValueNonNumeric(x, y).
 Note

SameValueZero differs from SameValue only in its treatment of +0 and -0.

7.2.13 SameValueNonNumeric ( x, y )

The internal comparison abstract operation SameValueNonNumeric(x, y), where neither x nor y are numeric type values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

  1. Assert: Type(x) is not Number or BigInt.
  2. Assert: Type(x) is the same as Type(y).
  3. If Type(x) is Undefined, return true.
  4. If Type(x) is Null, return true.
  5. If Type(x) is String, then
    1. If x and y are exactly the same sequence of code units (same length and same code units at corresponding indices), return true; otherwise, return false.
  6. If Type(x) is Boolean, then
    1. If x and y are both true or both false, return true; otherwise, return false.
  7. If Type(x) is Symbol, then
    1. If x and y are both the same Symbol value, return true; otherwise, return false.
  8. If x and y are the same Object value, return true. Otherwise, return false.

7.2.14 Abstract Relational Comparison

The comparison x < y, where x and y are values, produces true, false, or undefined (which indicates that at least one operand is NaN). In addition to x and y the algorithm takes a Boolean flag named LeftFirst as a parameter. The flag is used to control the order in which operations with potentially visible side-effects are performed upon x and y. It is necessary because ECMAScript specifies left to right evaluation of expressions. The default value of LeftFirst is true and indicates that the x parameter corresponds to an expression that occurs to the left of the y parameter's corresponding expression. If LeftFirst is false, the reverse is the case and operations must be performed upon y before x. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

  1. If the LeftFirst flag is true, then
    1. Let px be ? ToPrimitive(x, hint Number).
    2. Let py be ? ToPrimitive(y, hint Number).
  2. Else,
    1. NOTE: The order of evaluation needs to be reversed to preserve left to right evaluation.
    2. Let py be ? ToPrimitive(y, hint Number).
    3. Let px be ? ToPrimitive(x, hint Number).
  3. If Type(px) is String and Type(py) is String, then
    1. If IsStringPrefix(py, px) is true, return false.
    2. If IsStringPrefix(px, py) is true, return true.
    3. Let k be the smallest nonnegative integer such that the code unit at index k within px is different from the code unit at index k within py. (There must be such a k, for neither String is a prefix of the other.)
    4. Let m be the integer that is the numeric value of the code unit at index k within px.
    5. Let n be the integer that is the numeric value of the code unit at index k within py.
    6. If m < n, return true. Otherwise, return false.
  4. Else,
    1. If Type(px) is BigInt and Type(py) is String, then
      1. Let ny be ! StringToBigInt(py).
      2. If ny is NaN, return undefined.
      3. Return BigInt::lessThan(px, ny).
    2. If Type(px) is String and Type(py) is BigInt, then
      1. Let nx be ! StringToBigInt(px).
      2. If nx is NaN, return undefined.
      3. Return BigInt::lessThan(nx, py).
    3. NOTE: Because px and py are primitive values, evaluation order is not important.
    4. Let nx be ? ToNumeric(px).
    5. Let ny be ? ToNumeric(py).
    6. If Type(nx) is the same as Type(ny), return Type(nx)::lessThan(nx, ny).
    7. Assert: Type(nx) is BigInt and Type(ny) is Number, or Type(nx) is Number and Type(ny) is BigInt.
    8. If nx or ny is NaN, return undefined.
    9. If nx is -∞ or ny is +∞, return true.
    10. If nx is +∞ or ny is -∞, return false.
    11. If the mathematical value of nx is less than the mathematical value of ny, return true; otherwise return false.
 Note 1

Step 3 differs from step 7 in the algorithm for the addition operator + (12.8.3) by using the logical-and operation instead of the logical-or operation.

 Note 2

The comparison of Strings uses a simple lexicographic ordering on sequences of code unit values. There is no attempt to use the more complex, semantically oriented definitions of character or string equality and collating order defined in the Unicode specification. Therefore String values that are canonically equal according to the Unicode standard could test as unequal. In effect this algorithm assumes that both Strings are already in normalized form. Also, note that for strings containing supplementary characters, lexicographic ordering on sequences of UTF-16 code unit values differs from that on sequences of code point values.

7.2.15 Abstract Equality Comparison

The comparison x == y, where x and y are values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

  1. If Type(x) is the same as Type(y), then
    1. Return the result of performing Strict Equality Comparison x === y.
  2. If x is null and y is undefined, return true.
  3. If x is undefined and y is null, return true.
  4. If Type(x) is Number and Type(y) is String, return the result of the comparison x == ! ToNumber(y).
  5. If Type(x) is String and Type(y) is Number, return the result of the comparison ! ToNumber(x) == y.
  6. If Type(x) is BigInt and Type(y) is String, then
    1. Let n be ! StringToBigInt(y).
    2. If n is NaN, return false.
    3. Return the result of the comparison x == n.
  7. If Type(x) is String and Type(y) is BigInt, return the result of the comparison y == x.
  8. If Type(x) is Boolean, return the result of the comparison ! ToNumber(x) == y.
  9. If Type(y) is Boolean, return the result of the comparison x == ! ToNumber(y).
  10. If Type(x) is either String, Number, BigInt, or Symbol and Type(y) is Object, return the result of the comparison x == ToPrimitive(y).
  11. If Type(x) is Object and Type(y) is either String, Number, BigInt, or Symbol, return the result of the comparison ToPrimitive(x) == y.
  12. If Type(x) is BigInt and Type(y) is Number, or if Type(x) is Number and Type(y) is BigInt, then
    1. If x or y are any of NaN, +∞, or -∞, return false.
    2. If the mathematical value of x is equal to the mathematical value of y, return true; otherwise return false.
  13. Return false.

7.2.16 Strict Equality Comparison

The comparison x === y, where x and y are values, produces true or false. Such a comparison is performed as follows:

  1. If Type(x) is different from Type(y), return false.
  2. If Type(x) is Number or BigInt, then
    1. Return ! Type(x)::equal(x, y).
  3. Return ! SameValueNonNumeric(x, y).
 Note

This algorithm differs from the SameValue Algorithm in its treatment of signed zeroes and NaNs.

7.3 Operations on Objects

7.3.1 MakeBasicObject ( internalSlotsList )

The abstract operation MakeBasicObject is the source of all ECMAScript objects that are created algorithmically, including both ordinary objects and exotic objects. It factors out common steps used in creating all objects, and centralizes object creation.

  1. Assert: internalSlotsList is a List of internal slot names.
  2. Let obj be a newly created object with an internal slot for each name in internalSlotsList.
  3. Set obj's essential internal methods to the default ordinary object definitions specified in 9.1.
  4. Assert: If the caller will not be overriding both obj's [[GetPrototypeOf]] and [[SetPrototypeOf]] essential internal methods, then internalSlotsList contains [[Prototype]].
  5. Assert: If the caller will not be overriding all of obj's [[SetPrototypeOf]], [[IsExtensible]], and [[PreventExtensions]] essential internal methods, then internalSlotsList contains [[Extensible]].
  6. If internalSlotsList contains [[Extensible]], then set obj.[[Extensible]] to true.
  7. Return obj.
 Note

Within this specification, exotic objects are created in abstract operations such as ArrayCreate and BoundFunctionCreate by first calling MakeBasicObject to obtain a basic, foundational object, and then overriding some or all of that object's internal methods. In order to encapsulate exotic object creation, the object's essential internal methods are never modified outside those operations.

7.3.2 Get ( O, P )

The abstract operation Get is used to retrieve the value of a specific property of an object. The operation is called with arguments O and P where O is the object and P is the property key. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Return ? O.[[Get]](P, O).

7.3.3 GetV ( V, P )

The abstract operation GetV is used to retrieve the value of a specific property of an ECMAScript language value. If the value is not an object, the property lookup is performed using a wrapper object appropriate for the type of the value. The operation is called with arguments V and P where V is the value and P is the property key. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  2. Let O be ? ToObject(V).
  3. Return ? O.[[Get]](P, V).

7.3.4 Set ( O, P, V, Throw )

The abstract operation Set is used to set the value of a specific property of an object. The operation is called with arguments O, P, V, and Throw where O is the object, P is the property key, V is the new value for the property and Throw is a Boolean flag. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Assert: Type(Throw) is Boolean.
  4. Let success be ? O.[[Set]](P, V, O).
  5. If success is false and Throw is true, throw a TypeError exception.
  6. Return success.

7.3.5 CreateDataProperty ( O, P, V )

The abstract operation CreateDataProperty is used to create a new own property of an object. The operation is called with arguments O, P, and V where O is the object, P is the property key, and V is the value for the property. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Let newDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: true }.
  4. Return ? O.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, newDesc).
 Note

This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same defaults used for properties created by the ECMAScript language assignment operator. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it does exist and is not configurable or if O is not extensible, [[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false.

7.3.6 CreateMethodProperty ( O, P, V )

The abstract operation CreateMethodProperty is used to create a new own property of an object. The operation is called with arguments O, P, and V where O is the object, P is the property key, and V is the value for the property. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Let newDesc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: V, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }.
  4. Return ? O.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, newDesc).
 Note

This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same defaults used for built-in methods and methods defined using class declaration syntax. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it does exist and is not configurable or if O is not extensible, [[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false.

7.3.7 CreateDataPropertyOrThrow ( O, P, V )

The abstract operation CreateDataPropertyOrThrow is used to create a new own property of an object. It throws a TypeError exception if the requested property update cannot be performed. The operation is called with arguments O, P, and V where O is the object, P is the property key, and V is the value for the property. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Let success be ? CreateDataProperty(O, P, V).
  4. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
  5. Return success.
 Note

This abstract operation creates a property whose attributes are set to the same defaults used for properties created by the ECMAScript language assignment operator. Normally, the property will not already exist. If it does exist and is not configurable or if O is not extensible, [[DefineOwnProperty]] will return false causing this operation to throw a TypeError exception.

7.3.8 DefinePropertyOrThrow ( O, P, desc )

The abstract operation DefinePropertyOrThrow is used to call the [[DefineOwnProperty]] internal method of an object in a manner that will throw a TypeError exception if the requested property update cannot be performed. The operation is called with arguments O, P, and desc where O is the object, P is the property key, and desc is the Property Descriptor for the property. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Let success be ? O.[[DefineOwnProperty]](P, desc).
  4. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
  5. Return success.

7.3.9 DeletePropertyOrThrow ( O, P )

The abstract operation DeletePropertyOrThrow is used to remove a specific own property of an object. It throws an exception if the property is not configurable. The operation is called with arguments O and P where O is the object and P is the property key. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Let success be ? O.[[Delete]](P).
  4. If success is false, throw a TypeError exception.
  5. Return success.

7.3.10 GetMethod ( V, P )

The abstract operation GetMethod is used to get the value of a specific property of an ECMAScript language value when the value of the property is expected to be a function. The operation is called with arguments V and P where V is the ECMAScript language value, P is the property key. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  2. Let func be ? GetV(V, P).
  3. If func is either undefined or null, return undefined.
  4. If IsCallable(func) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
  5. Return func.

7.3.11 HasProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation HasProperty is used to determine whether an object has a property with the specified property key. The property may be either an own or inherited. A Boolean value is returned. The operation is called with arguments O and P where O is the object and P is the property key. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Return ? O.[[HasProperty]](P).

7.3.12 HasOwnProperty ( O, P )

The abstract operation HasOwnProperty is used to determine whether an object has an own property with the specified property key. A Boolean value is returned. The operation is called with arguments O and P where O is the object and P is the property key. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  3. Let desc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](P).
  4. If desc is undefined, return false.
  5. Return true.

7.3.13 Call ( F, V [ , argumentsList ] )

The abstract operation Call is used to call the [[Call]] internal method of a function object. The operation is called with arguments F, V, and optionally argumentsList where F is the function object, V is an ECMAScript language value that is the this value of the [[Call]], and argumentsList is the value passed to the corresponding argument of the internal method. If argumentsList is not present, a new empty List is used as its value. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.
  2. If IsCallable(F) is false, throw a TypeError exception.
  3. Return ? F.[[Call]](V, argumentsList).

7.3.14 Construct ( F [ , argumentsList [ , newTarget ] ] )

The abstract operation Construct is used to call the [[Construct]] internal method of a function object. The operation is called with arguments F, and optionally argumentsList, and newTarget where F is the function object. argumentsList and newTarget are the values to be passed as the corresponding arguments of the internal method. If argumentsList is not present, a new empty List is used as its value. If newTarget is not present, F is used as its value. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. If newTarget is not present, set newTarget to F.
  2. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.
  3. Assert: IsConstructor(F) is true.
  4. Assert: IsConstructor(newTarget) is true.
  5. Return ? F.[[Construct]](argumentsList, newTarget).
 Note

If newTarget is not present, this operation is equivalent to: new F(...argumentsList)

7.3.15 SetIntegrityLevel ( O, level )

The abstract operation SetIntegrityLevel is used to fix the set of own properties of an object. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: level is either sealed or frozen.
  3. Let status be ? O.[[PreventExtensions]]().
  4. If status is false, return false.
  5. Let keys be ? O.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
  6. If level is sealed, then
    1. For each element k of keys, do
      1. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, k, PropertyDescriptor { [[Configurable]]: false }).
  7. Else,
    1. Assert: level is frozen.
    2. For each element k of keys, do
      1. Let currentDesc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](k).
      2. If currentDesc is not undefined, then
        1. If IsAccessorDescriptor(currentDesc) is true, then
          1. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Configurable]]: false }.
        2. Else,
          1. Let desc be the PropertyDescriptor { [[Configurable]]: false, [[Writable]]: false }.
        3. Perform ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(O, k, desc).
  8. Return true.

7.3.16 TestIntegrityLevel ( O, level )

The abstract operation TestIntegrityLevel is used to determine if the set of own properties of an object are fixed. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Assert: level is either sealed or frozen.
  3. Let extensible be ? IsExtensible(O).
  4. If extensible is true, return false.
  5. NOTE: If the object is extensible, none of its properties are examined.
  6. Let keys be ? O.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
  7. For each element k of keys, do
    1. Let currentDesc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](k).
    2. If currentDesc is not undefined, then
      1. If currentDesc.[[Configurable]] is true, return false.
      2. If level is frozen and IsDataDescriptor(currentDesc) is true, then
        1. If currentDesc.[[Writable]] is true, return false.
  8. Return true.

7.3.17 CreateArrayFromList ( elements )

The abstract operation CreateArrayFromList is used to create an Array object whose elements are provided by a List. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: elements is a List whose elements are all ECMAScript language values.
  2. Let array be ! ArrayCreate(0).
  3. Let n be 0.
  4. For each element e of elements, do
    1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(array, ! ToString(n), e).
    2. Set n to n + 1.
  5. Return array.

7.3.18 LengthOfArrayLike ( obj )

The abstract operation LengthOfArrayLike returns the value of the "length" property of an array-like object.

  1. Assert: Type(obj) is Object.
  2. Return ? ToLength(? Get(obj, "length")).

An array-like object is any object for which this operation returns an integer rather than an abrupt completion.

Note 1
Typically, an array-like object would also have some properties with integer index names. However, that is not a requirement of this definition.
Note 2
Array objects and String objects are examples of array-like objects.

7.3.19 CreateListFromArrayLike ( obj [ , elementTypes ] )

The abstract operation CreateListFromArrayLike is used to create a List value whose elements are provided by the indexed properties of an array-like object, obj. The optional argument elementTypes is a List containing the names of ECMAScript Language Types that are allowed for element values of the List that is created. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. If elementTypes is not present, set elementTypes to « Undefined, Null, Boolean, String, Symbol, Number, BigInt, Object ».
  2. If Type(obj) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  3. Let len be ? LengthOfArrayLike(obj).
  4. Let list be a new empty List.
  5. Let index be 0.
  6. Repeat, while index < len
    1. Let indexName be ! ToString(index).
    2. Let next be ? Get(obj, indexName).
    3. If Type(next) is not an element of elementTypes, throw a TypeError exception.
    4. Append next as the last element of list.
    5. Set index to index + 1.
  7. Return list.

7.3.20 Invoke ( V, P [ , argumentsList ] )

The abstract operation Invoke is used to call a method property of an ECMAScript language value. The operation is called with arguments V, P, and optionally argumentsList where V serves as both the lookup point for the property and the this value of the call, P is the property key, and argumentsList is the list of arguments values passed to the method. If argumentsList is not present, a new empty List is used as its value. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: IsPropertyKey(P) is true.
  2. If argumentsList is not present, set argumentsList to a new empty List.
  3. Let func be ? GetV(V, P).
  4. Return ? Call(func, V, argumentsList).

7.3.21 OrdinaryHasInstance ( C, O )

The abstract operation OrdinaryHasInstance implements the default algorithm for determining if an object O inherits from the instance object inheritance path provided by constructor C. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. If IsCallable(C) is false, return false.
  2. If C has a [[BoundTargetFunction]] internal slot, then
    1. Let BC be C.[[BoundTargetFunction]].
    2. Return ? InstanceofOperator(O, BC).
  3. If Type(O) is not Object, return false.
  4. Let P be ? Get(C, "prototype").
  5. If Type(P) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  6. Repeat,
    1. Set O to ? O.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().
    2. If O is null, return false.
    3. If SameValue(P, O) is true, return true.

7.3.22 SpeciesConstructor ( O, defaultConstructor )

The abstract operation SpeciesConstructor is used to retrieve the constructor that should be used to create new objects that are derived from the argument object O. The defaultConstructor argument is the constructor to use if a constructor @@species property cannot be found starting from O. This abstract operation performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Let C be ? Get(O, "constructor").
  3. If C is undefined, return defaultConstructor.
  4. If Type(C) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  5. Let S be ? Get(C, @@species).
  6. If S is either undefined or null, return defaultConstructor.
  7. If IsConstructor(S) is true, return S.
  8. Throw a TypeError exception.

7.3.23 EnumerableOwnPropertyNames ( O, kind )

When the abstract operation EnumerableOwnPropertyNames is called with an Object O and kind which is one of (key, value, key+value), the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  2. Let ownKeys be ? O.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
  3. Let properties be a new empty List.
  4. For each element key of ownKeys in List order, do
    1. If Type(key) is String, then
      1. Let desc be ? O.[[GetOwnProperty]](key).
      2. If desc is not undefined and desc.[[Enumerable]] is true, then
        1. If kind is key, append key to properties.
        2. Else,
          1. Let value be ? Get(O, key).
          2. If kind is value, append value to properties.
          3. Else,
            1. Assert: kind is key+value.
            2. Let entry be ! CreateArrayFromList(« key, value »).
            3. Append entry to properties.
  5. Return properties.

7.3.24 GetFunctionRealm ( obj )

The abstract operation GetFunctionRealm with argument obj performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: ! IsCallable(obj) is true.
  2. If obj has a [[Realm]] internal slot, then
    1. Return obj.[[Realm]].
  3. If obj is a bound function exotic object, then
    1. Let target be obj.[[BoundTargetFunction]].
    2. Return ? GetFunctionRealm(target).
  4. If obj is a Proxy exotic object, then
    1. If obj.[[ProxyHandler]] is null, throw a TypeError exception.
    2. Let proxyTarget be obj.[[ProxyTarget]].
    3. Return ? GetFunctionRealm(proxyTarget).
  5. Return the current Realm Record.
 Note

Step 5 will only be reached if obj is a non-standard function exotic object that does not have a [[Realm]] internal slot.

7.3.25 CopyDataProperties ( target, source, excludedItems )

When the abstract operation CopyDataProperties is called with arguments target, source, and excludedItems, the following steps are taken:

  1. Assert: Type(target) is Object.
  2. Assert: excludedItems is a List of property keys.
  3. If source is undefined or null, return target.
  4. Let from be ! ToObject(source).
  5. Let keys be ? from.[[OwnPropertyKeys]]().
  6. For each element nextKey of keys in List order, do
    1. Let excluded be false.
    2. For each element e of excludedItems in List order, do
      1. If SameValue(e, nextKey) is true, then
        1. Set excluded to true.
    3. If excluded is false, then
      1. Let desc be ? from.[[GetOwnProperty]](nextKey).
      2. If desc is not undefined and desc.[[Enumerable]] is true, then
        1. Let propValue be ? Get(from, nextKey).
        2. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(target, nextKey, propValue).
  7. Return target.
 Note

The target passed in here is always a newly created object which is not directly accessible in case of an error being thrown.

7.4 Operations on Iterator Objects

See Common Iteration Interfaces (25.1).

7.4.1 GetIterator ( obj [ , hint [ , method ] ] )

The abstract operation GetIterator with argument obj and optional arguments hint and method performs the following steps:

  1. If hint is not present, set hint to sync.
  2. Assert: hint is either sync or async.
  3. If method is not present, then
    1. If hint is async, then
      1. Set method to ? GetMethod(obj, @@asyncIterator).
      2. If method is undefined, then
        1. Let syncMethod be ? GetMethod(obj, @@iterator).
        2. Let syncIteratorRecord be ? GetIterator(obj, sync, syncMethod).
        3. Return ! CreateAsyncFromSyncIterator(syncIteratorRecord).
    2. Otherwise, set method to ? GetMethod(obj, @@iterator).
  4. Let iterator be ? Call(method, obj).
  5. If Type(iterator) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  6. Let nextMethod be ? GetV(iterator, "next").
  7. Let iteratorRecord be the Record { [[Iterator]]: iterator, [[NextMethod]]: nextMethod, [[Done]]: false }.
  8. Return iteratorRecord.

7.4.2 IteratorNext ( iteratorRecord [ , value ] )

The abstract operation IteratorNext with argument iteratorRecord and optional argument value performs the following steps:

  1. If value is not present, then
    1. Let result be ? Call(iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]).
  2. Else,
    1. Let result be ? Call(iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]], iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]], « value »).
  3. If Type(result) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  4. Return result.

7.4.3 IteratorComplete ( iterResult )

The abstract operation IteratorComplete with argument iterResult performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(iterResult) is Object.
  2. Return ! ToBoolean(? Get(iterResult, "done")).

7.4.4 IteratorValue ( iterResult )

The abstract operation IteratorValue with argument iterResult performs the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(iterResult) is Object.
  2. Return ? Get(iterResult, "value").

7.4.5 IteratorStep ( iteratorRecord )

The abstract operation IteratorStep with argument iteratorRecord requests the next value from iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]] by calling iteratorRecord.[[NextMethod]] and returns either false indicating that the iterator has reached its end or the IteratorResult object if a next value is available. IteratorStep performs the following steps:

  1. Let result be ? IteratorNext(iteratorRecord).
  2. Let done be ? IteratorComplete(result).
  3. If done is true, return false.
  4. Return result.

7.4.6 IteratorClose ( iteratorRecord, completion )

The abstract operation IteratorClose with arguments iteratorRecord and completion is used to notify an iterator that it should perform any actions it would normally perform when it has reached its completed state:

  1. Assert: Type(iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]) is Object.
  2. Assert: completion is a Completion Record.
  3. Let iterator be iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]].
  4. Let return be ? GetMethod(iterator, "return").
  5. If return is undefined, return Completion(completion).
  6. Let innerResult be Call(return, iterator).
  7. If completion.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(completion).
  8. If innerResult.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(innerResult).
  9. If Type(innerResult.[[Value]]) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  10. Return Completion(completion).

7.4.7 AsyncIteratorClose ( iteratorRecord, completion )

The abstract operation AsyncIteratorClose with arguments iteratorRecord and completion is used to notify an async iterator that it should perform any actions it would normally perform when it has reached its completed state:

  1. Assert: Type(iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]]) is Object.
  2. Assert: completion is a Completion Record.
  3. Let iterator be iteratorRecord.[[Iterator]].
  4. Let return be ? GetMethod(iterator, "return").
  5. If return is undefined, return Completion(completion).
  6. Let innerResult be Call(return, iterator).
  7. If innerResult.[[Type]] is normal, set innerResult to Await(innerResult.[[Value]]).
  8. If completion.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(completion).
  9. If innerResult.[[Type]] is throw, return Completion(innerResult).
  10. If Type(innerResult.[[Value]]) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
  11. Return Completion(completion).

7.4.8 CreateIterResultObject ( value, done )

The abstract operation CreateIterResultObject with arguments value and done creates an object that supports the IteratorResult interface by performing the following steps:

  1. Assert: Type(done) is Boolean.
  2. Let obj be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
  3. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", value).
  4. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "done", done).
  5. Return obj.

7.4.9 CreateListIteratorRecord ( list )

The abstract operation CreateListIteratorRecord with argument list creates an Iterator (25.1.1.2) object record whose next method returns the successive elements of list. It performs the following steps:

  1. Let iterator be OrdinaryObjectCreate(%IteratorPrototype%, « [[IteratedList]], [[ListNextIndex]] »).
  2. Set iterator.[[IteratedList]] to list.
  3. Set iterator.[[ListNextIndex]] to 0.
  4. Let steps be the algorithm steps defined in ListIteratorNext Functions.
  5. Let next be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(steps, « »).
  6. Return Record { [[Iterator]]: iterator, [[NextMethod]]: next, [[Done]]: false }.
 Note

The list iterator object is never directly accessible to ECMAScript code.

7.4.9.1 ListIteratorNext Functions

A ListIteratorNext function is an anonymous built-in function. When called with no arguments, it performs the following steps:

  1. Let O be the this value.
  2. Assert: Type(O) is Object.
  3. Assert: O has an [[IteratedList]] internal slot.
  4. Let list be O.[[IteratedList]].
  5. Let index be O.[[ListNextIndex]].
  6. Let len be the number of elements of list.
  7. If index ≥ len, then
    1. Return CreateIterResultObject(undefined, true).
  8. Set O.[[ListNextIndex]] to index + 1.
  9. Return CreateIterResultObject(list[index], false).

The "length" property of a ListIteratorNext function is 0.

8 Executable Code and Execution Contexts

8.1 Lexical Environments

A Lexical Environment is a specification type used to define the association of Identifiers to specific variables and functions based upon the lexical nesting structure of ECMAScript code. A Lexical Environment consists of an Environment Record and a possibly null reference to an outer Lexical Environment. Usually a Lexical Environment is associated with some specific syntactic structure of ECMAScript code such as a FunctionDeclaration, a BlockStatement, or a Catch clause of a TryStatement and a new Lexical Environment is created each time such code is evaluated.

An Environment Record records the identifier bindings that are created within the scope of its associated Lexical Environment. It is referred to as the Lexical Environment's EnvironmentRecord.

The outer environment reference is used to model the logical nesting of Lexical Environment values. The outer reference of a (inner) Lexical Environment is a reference to the Lexical Environment that logically surrounds the inner Lexical Environment. An outer Lexical Environment may, of course, have its own outer Lexical Environment. A Lexical Environment may serve as the outer environment for multiple inner Lexical Environments. For example, if a FunctionDeclaration contains two nested FunctionDeclarations then the Lexical Environments of each of the nested functions will have as their outer Lexical Environment the Lexical Environment of the current evaluation of the surrounding function.

A global environment is a Lexical Environment which does not have an outer environment. The global environment's outer environment reference is null. A global environment's EnvironmentRecord may be prepopulated with identifier bindings and includes an associated global object whose properties provide some of the global environment's identifier bindings. As ECMAScript code is executed, additional properties may be added to the global object and the initial properties may be modified.

A module environment is a Lexical Environment that contains the bindings for the top level declarations of a Module. It also contains the bindings that are explicitly imported by the Module. The outer environment of a module environment is a global environment.

A function environment is a Lexical Environment that corresponds to the invocation of an ECMAScript function object. A function environment may establish a new this binding. A function environment also captures the state necessary to support super method invocations.

Lexical Environments and Environment Record values are purely specification mechanisms and need not correspond to any specific artefact of an ECMAScript implementation. It is impossible for an ECMAScript program to directly access or manipulate such values.

8.1.1 Environment Records

There are two primary kinds of Environment Record values used in this specification: declarative Environment Records and object Environment Records. Declarative Environment Records are used to define the effect of ECMAScript language syntactic elements such as FunctionDeclarations, VariableDeclarations, and Catch clauses that directly associate identifier bindings with ECMAScript language values. Object Environment Records are used to define the effect of ECMAScript elements such as WithStatement that associate identifier bindings with the properties of some object. Global Environment Records and function Environment Records are specializations that are used for specifically for Script global declarations and for top-level declarations within functions.

For specification purposes Environment Record values are values of the Record specification type and can be thought of as existing in a simple object-oriented hierarchy where Environment Record is an abstract class with three concrete subclasses, declarative Environment Record, object Environment Record, and global Environment Record. Function Environment Records and module Environment Records are subclasses of declarative Environment Record. The abstract class includes the abstract specification methods defined in Table 16. These abstract methods have distinct concrete algorithms for each of the concrete subclasses.

Table 16: Abstract Methods of Environment Records
Method Purpose
HasBinding(N) Determine if an Environment Record has a binding for the String value N. Return true if it does and false if it does not.
CreateMutableBinding(N, D) Create a new but uninitialized mutable binding in an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. If the Boolean argument D is true the binding may be subsequently deleted.
CreateImmutableBinding(N, S) Create a new but uninitialized immutable binding in an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. If S is true then attempts to set it after it has been initialized will always throw an exception, regardless of the strict mode setting of operations that reference that binding.
InitializeBinding(N, V) Set the value of an already existing but uninitialized binding in an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. V is the value for the binding and is a value of any ECMAScript language type.
SetMutableBinding(N, V, S) Set the value of an already existing mutable binding in an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. V is the value for the binding and may be a value of any ECMAScript language type. S is a Boolean flag. If S is true and the binding cannot be set throw a TypeError exception.
GetBindingValue(N, S) Returns the value of an already existing binding from an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. S is used to identify references originating in strict mode code or that otherwise require strict mode reference semantics. If S is true and the binding does not exist throw a ReferenceError exception. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is thrown, regardless of the value of S.
DeleteBinding(N) Delete a binding from an Environment Record. The String value N is the text of the bound name. If a binding for N exists, remove the binding and return true. If the binding exists but cannot be removed return false. If the binding does not exist return true.
HasThisBinding() Determine if an Environment Record establishes a this binding. Return true if it does and false if it does not.
HasSuperBinding() Determine if an Environment Record establishes a super method binding. Return true if it does and false if it does not.
WithBaseObject() If this Environment Record is associated with a with statement, return the with object. Otherwise, return undefined.

8.1.1.1 Declarative Environment Records

Each declarative Environment Record is associated with an ECMAScript program scope containing variable, constant, let, class, module, import, and/or function declarations. A declarative Environment Record binds the set of identifiers defined by the declarations contained within its scope.

The behaviour of the concrete specification methods for declarative Environment Records is defined by the following algorithms.

8.1.1.1.1 HasBinding ( N )

The concrete Environment Record method HasBinding for declarative Environment Records simply determines if the argument identifier is one of the identifiers bound by the record:

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. If envRec has a binding for the name that is the value of N, return true.
  3. Return false.

8.1.1.1.2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The concrete Environment Record method CreateMutableBinding for declarative Environment Records creates a new mutable binding for the name N that is uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If Boolean argument D has the value true the new binding is marked as being subject to deletion.

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.
  3. Create a mutable binding in envRec for N and record that it is uninitialized. If D is true, record that the newly created binding may be deleted by a subsequent DeleteBinding call.
  4. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

8.1.1.1.3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The concrete Environment Record method CreateImmutableBinding for declarative Environment Records creates a new immutable binding for the name N that is uninitialized. A binding must not already exist in this Environment Record for N. If the Boolean argument S has the value true the new binding is marked as a strict binding.

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec does not already have a binding for N.
  3. Create an immutable binding in envRec for N and record that it is uninitialized. If S is true, record that the newly created binding is a strict binding.
  4. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

8.1.1.1.4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The concrete Environment Record method InitializeBinding for declarative Environment Records is used to set the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. An uninitialized binding for N must already exist.

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec must have an uninitialized binding for N.
  3. Set the bound value for N in envRec to V.
  4. Record that the binding for N in envRec has been initialized.
  5. Return NormalCompletion(empty).

8.1.1.1.5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The concrete Environment Record method SetMutableBinding for declarative Environment Records attempts to change the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. A binding for N normally already exists, but in rare cases it may not. If the binding is an immutable binding, a TypeError is thrown if S is true.

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. If envRec does not have a binding for N, then
    1. If S is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
    2. Perform envRec.CreateMutableBinding(N, true).
    3. Perform envRec.InitializeBinding(N, V).
    4. Return NormalCompletion(empty).
  3. If the binding for N in envRec is a strict binding, set S to true.
  4. If the binding for N in envRec has not yet been initialized, throw a ReferenceError exception.
  5. Else if the binding for N in envRec is a mutable binding, change its bound value to V.
  6. Else,
    1. Assert: This is an attempt to change the value of an immutable binding.
    2. If S is true, throw a TypeError exception.
  7. Return NormalCompletion(empty).
 Note

An example of ECMAScript code that results in a missing binding at step 2 is:

function f() { eval("var x; x = (delete x, 0);"); }

8.1.1.1.6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The concrete Environment Record method GetBindingValue for declarative Environment Records simply returns the value of its bound identifier whose name is the value of the argument N. If the binding exists but is uninitialized a ReferenceError is thrown, regardless of the value of S.

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec has a binding for N.
  3. If the binding for N in envRec is an uninitialized binding, throw a ReferenceError exception.
  4. Return the value currently bound to N in envRec.

8.1.1.1.7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The concrete Environment Record method DeleteBinding for declarative Environment Records can only delete bindings that have been explicitly designated as being subject to deletion.

  1. Let envRec be the declarative Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec has a binding for the name that is the value of N.
  3. If the binding for N in envRec cannot be deleted, return false.
  4. Remove the binding for N from envRec.
  5. Return true.

8.1.1.1.8 HasThisBinding ( )

Regular declarative Environment Records do not provide a this binding.

  1. Return false.

8.1.1.1.9 HasSuperBinding ( )

Regular declarative Environment Records do not provide a super binding.

  1. Return false.

8.1.1.1.10 WithBaseObject ( )

Declarative Environment Records always return undefined as their WithBaseObject.

  1. Return undefined.

8.1.1.2 Object Environment Records

Each object Environment Record is associated with an object called its binding object. An object Environment Record binds the set of string identifier names that directly correspond to the property names of its binding object. Property keys that are not strings in the form of an IdentifierName are not included in the set of bound identifiers. Both own and inherited properties are included in the set regardless of the setting of their [[Enumerable]] attribute. Because properties can be dynamically added and deleted from objects, the set of identifiers bound by an object Environment Record may potentially change as a side-effect of any operation that adds or deletes properties. Any bindings that are created as a result of such a side-effect are considered to be a mutable binding even if the Writable attribute of the corresponding property has the value false. Immutable bindings do not exist for object Environment Records.

Object Environment Records created for with statements (13.11) can provide their binding object as an implicit this value for use in function calls. The capability is controlled by a withEnvironment Boolean value that is associated with each object Environment Record. By default, the value of withEnvironment is false for any object Environment Record.

The behaviour of the concrete specification methods for object Environment Records is defined by the following algorithms.

8.1.1.2.1 HasBinding ( N )

The concrete Environment Record method HasBinding for object Environment Records determines if its associated binding object has a property whose name is the value of the argument N:

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Let bindings be the binding object for envRec.
  3. Let foundBinding be ? HasProperty(bindings, N).
  4. If foundBinding is false, return false.
  5. If the withEnvironment flag of envRec is false, return true.
  6. Let unscopables be ? Get(bindings, @@unscopables).
  7. If Type(unscopables) is Object, then
    1. Let blocked be ! ToBoolean(? Get(unscopables, N)).
    2. If blocked is true, return false.
  8. Return true.

8.1.1.2.2 CreateMutableBinding ( N, D )

The concrete Environment Record method CreateMutableBinding for object Environment Records creates in an Environment Record's associated binding object a property whose name is the String value and initializes it to the value undefined. If Boolean argument D has the value true the new property's [[Configurable]] attribute is set to true; otherwise it is set to false.

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Let bindings be the binding object for envRec.
  3. Return ? DefinePropertyOrThrow(bindings, N, PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: undefined, [[Writable]]: true, [[Enumerable]]: true, [[Configurable]]: D }).
 Note

Normally envRec will not have a binding for N but if it does, the semantics of DefinePropertyOrThrow may result in an existing binding being replaced or shadowed or cause an abrupt completion to be returned.

8.1.1.2.3 CreateImmutableBinding ( N, S )

The concrete Environment Record method CreateImmutableBinding is never used within this specification in association with object Environment Records.

8.1.1.2.4 InitializeBinding ( N, V )

The concrete Environment Record method InitializeBinding for object Environment Records is used to set the bound value of the current binding of the identifier whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. An uninitialized binding for N must already exist.

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec must have an uninitialized binding for N.
  3. Record that the binding for N in envRec has been initialized.
  4. Return ? envRec.SetMutableBinding(N, V, false).
 Note

In this specification, all uses of CreateMutableBinding for object Environment Records are immediately followed by a call to InitializeBinding for the same name. Hence, implementations do not need to explicitly track the initialization state of individual object Environment Record bindings.

8.1.1.2.5 SetMutableBinding ( N, V, S )

The concrete Environment Record method SetMutableBinding for object Environment Records attempts to set the value of the Environment Record's associated binding object's property whose name is the value of the argument N to the value of argument V. A property named N normally already exists but if it does not or is not currently writable, error handling is determined by the value of the Boolean argument S.

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Let bindings be the binding object for envRec.
  3. Return ? Set(bindings, N, V, S).

8.1.1.2.6 GetBindingValue ( N, S )

The concrete Environment Record method GetBindingValue for object Environment Records returns the value of its associated binding object's property whose name is the String value of the argument identifier N. The property should already exist but if it does not the result depends upon the value of the S argument:

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Let bindings be the binding object for envRec.
  3. Let value be ? HasProperty(bindings, N).
  4. If value is false, then
    1. If S is false, return the value undefined; otherwise throw a ReferenceError exception.
  5. Return ? Get(bindings, N).

8.1.1.2.7 DeleteBinding ( N )

The concrete Environment Record method DeleteBinding for object Environment Records can only delete bindings that correspond to properties of the environment object whose [[Configurable]] attribute have the value true.

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Let bindings be the binding object for envRec.
  3. Return ? bindings.[[Delete]](N).

8.1.1.2.8 HasThisBinding ( )

Regular object Environment Records do not provide a this binding.

  1. Return false.

8.1.1.2.9 HasSuperBinding ( )

Regular object Environment Records do not provide a super binding.

  1. Return false.

8.1.1.2.10 WithBaseObject ( )

Object Environment Records return undefined as their WithBaseObject unless their withEnvironment flag is true.

  1. Let envRec be the object Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. If the withEnvironment flag of envRec is true, return the binding object for envRec.
  3. Otherwise, return undefined.

8.1.1.3 Function Environment Records

A function Environment Record is a declarative Environment Record that is used to represent the top-level scope of a function and, if the function is not an ArrowFunction, provides a this binding. If a function is not an ArrowFunction function and references super, its function Environment Record also contains the state that is used to perform super method invocations from within the function.

Function Environment Records have the additional state fields listed in Table 17.

Table 17: Additional Fields of Function Environment Records
Field Name Value Meaning
[[ThisValue]] Any This is the this value used for this invocation of the function.
[[ThisBindingStatus]] lexical | initialized | uninitialized If the value is lexical, this is an ArrowFunction and does not have a local this value.
[[FunctionObject]] Object The function object whose invocation caused this Environment Record to be created.
[[HomeObject]] Object | undefined If the associated function has super property accesses and is not an ArrowFunction, [[HomeObject]] is the object that the function is bound to as a method. The default value for [[HomeObject]] is undefined.
[[NewTarget]] Object | undefined If this Environment Record was created by the [[Construct]] internal method, [[NewTarget]] is the value of the [[Construct]] newTarget parameter. Otherwise, its value is undefined.

Function Environment Records support all of the declarative Environment Record methods listed in Table 16 and share the same specifications for all of those methods except for HasThisBinding and HasSuperBinding. In addition, function Environment Records support the methods listed in Table 18:

Table 18: Additional Methods of Function Environment Records
Method Purpose
BindThisValue(V) Set the [[ThisValue]] and record that it has been initialized.
GetThisBinding() Return the value of this Environment Record's this binding. Throws a ReferenceError if the this binding has not been initialized.
GetSuperBase() Return the object that is the base for super property accesses bound in this Environment Record. The object is derived from this Environment Record's [[HomeObject]] field. The value undefined indicates that super property accesses will produce runtime errors.

The behaviour of the additional concrete specification methods for function Environment Records is defined by the following algorithms:

8.1.1.3.1 BindThisValue ( V )

  1. Let envRec be the function Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not lexical.
  3. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is initialized, throw a ReferenceError exception.
  4. Set envRec.[[ThisValue]] to V.
  5. Set envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] to initialized.
  6. Return V.

8.1.1.3.2 HasThisBinding ( )

  1. Let envRec be the function Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is lexical, return false; otherwise, return true.

8.1.1.3.3 HasSuperBinding ( )

  1. Let envRec be the function Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is lexical, return false.
  3. If envRec.[[HomeObject]] has the value undefined, return false; otherwise, return true.

8.1.1.3.4 GetThisBinding ( )

  1. Let envRec be the function Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Assert: envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is not lexical.
  3. If envRec.[[ThisBindingStatus]] is uninitialized, throw a ReferenceError exception.
  4. Return envRec.[[ThisValue]].

8.1.1.3.5 GetSuperBase ( )

  1. Let envRec be the function Environment Record for which the method was invoked.
  2. Let home be envRec.[[HomeObject]].
  3. If home has the value undefined, return undefined.
  4. Assert: Type(home) is Object.
  5. Return ? home.[[GetPrototypeOf]]().

8.1.1.4 Global Environment Records

A global Environment Record is used to represent the outer most scope that is shared by all of the ECMAScript Script elements that are processed in a common realm. A global Environment Record provides the bindings for built-in globals (clause 18), properties of the global object, and for all top-level declarations (13.2.8, 13.2.10) that occur within a Script.

A global Environment Record is logically a single record but it is specified as a composite encapsulating an object Environment Record and a declarative Environment Record. The object Environment Record has as its bas