Portal to my podcast, websites, blog, and publications, providing an entryway into social and cultural life anong Greeks, Romans, Judeans, Christians, and others in ancient Mediterranean. Ethnicity, Diaspora, and relations among ethnic and minority groups is a focus.
Ancient author: Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.6 (link; link to Latin). Comments: Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius (early fourth century CE) was a rhetorician from North Africa who later relocated to engage in rhetoric in Nikomedia in Bithynia under emperor Diocletian and, at some point, may have been a tutor to one of the emperor Constantine s sons (according [ ]
This post is a guide for reading through ethnographic passages in Divine Institutes by Lactantius of northern Africa (late third-early fourth century CE): Egyptian, Babylonian, and Persian wisdom from Hermes Trimegistos and the Sibyls – Divine Institutes 1.6 (link) Taurians, Gauls, and Romans engaging in human sacrifice – 1.21 (link) Persian Magians as deceivers – 2.14, [ ]
Ancient authors: Josephos, Judean War 7.244-251 (link); Dio Cassius, Roman History 69.15 (via Xiphilinus summary). Comments: We know very little about a population around the Black Sea area that some Greek-speaking and Roman authors (beginning in the first century CE) labelled Alans (Alanoi / Alani). It s only in later antiquity that we hear significantly more, at least [ ]
Ancient author: Lactantius (early fourth century CE), Divine Institutes 2.14, 2.16, and 4.2 (link; link to Latin). Comments: I have already discussed the centrality of ethnographic examples of false and distorted customs, including human sacrifice, in the opening book of Lactantius Divine Institutions (link). In these passages below from book two and four, Lactantius turns to [ ]
Ancient author: Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.21 (link; link to Latin). Comments: In the process of rejecting the false gods of other peoples and of other contemporary Romans specifically, Lactantius (introduced at this link) provides a series of ethnographic examples as amunition. He begins with practices in honour of the gods which he characterizes as criminal, particularly [ ]
Ancient authors: Plato (fourth century BCE), Republic 565; Theophrastos of Eresos on Lesbos (fourth century BCE), On Piety, as cited by Porphyry of Tyre (third century CE, De abstinentia / On Abstinence from Killing Animals 2.5.27 (link; link to Greek); Platonic author (fourth century BCE), Minos 313-318; Marcus Terrentius Varro (first century BCE), Human and Divine [ ]
Ancient authors: Asklepiades of Cyprus (fourth century BCE) and Neanthes of Kyzikos (fourth century BCE), as cited by Porphyry of Tyre (third century CE), De abstinentia / On Abstinence from Killing Animals 4.15.1-4 (link; link to Greek) = FGHist 752 F1 (link to FGrHist). Comments: In this passage, the third century CE Neoplatonic author Porphyry cites [ ]
Ancient authors: Theophrastos of Eresos on Lesbos, On Etruscans, as cited in a marginal scribal note (scholium) on Pindar s Pythian Ode 2.2 = William W. Fortenbaugh, Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for His Life, Writings, Thought, and Influence, 2 vols. (Leiden: Brill, 1991), F586; Theophrastos, On Piety, as cited by Porphyry of Tyre (third century CE, [ ]
Ancient authors: Hellanikos of Lesbos (fifth century BCE), Dikaiarchos of Messena (late fourth century BCE), and others, as cited by Stephanos of Byzantion (sixth century CE), Ethnika, and Eustathios (twelfth century CE), Commentary on Dionysius Periegetes’ Guide to the World 767. Comments: The designations employed by Greeks to identify foreign peoples varied considerably and did not [ ]
Ancient authors: Various Greek poets (from the fifth century BCE on) cited by Athenaios (early third century CE), Sophists at Dinner 10.427 (link); Anonymous Judean author (first century CE), 4 Maccabees 10:1-11 (link); Suda lexicon, at eta 11 (link) and at alpha 878 (link). Comments: Matthijs den Dulk s recent work (2026) on Stereotypes and the [ ]
Ancient author: Valerius Maximus (early first century CE), Memorable Deeds and Sayings 7.6, external / foreign 1-2 (link); Petronius, (first century CE), Satyrica 141 (link); Florus (early second century CE), Epitome of Roman History 1.34 (link); Appian of Alexandria (mid-second century CE), Roman Matters: Iberian Book 6.66, 76-96 (link). Comments: Several anecdotes and stories circulated to the […
Ancient author: Juvenal (early second century CE), Satires 15 (link). Comments: In this satirical poem in Latin from some time just after 127 CE, Juvenal launches into a characterization of Egyptians (using two specific village populations as illustration) as demented animal worshippers and, even more starkly, savage eaters of raw human flesh. (The terms cannibals and [ ]
Galatian invaders characterized by Greeks in Asia Minor (279-160s BCE) 1a) Galatian / Celtic invader clubbed by Herakles at Kyzikos (link) 1b) Priene inscription on impious and savage Galatians (link) 2) Nude Galatian warrior crushed by a war-elephant (link) 3) Nude savagely-portrayed Galatian warrior (same link) 4) Little barbarians with some likely association to Attalid [ ]
Ancient author: Josephos, Judean Antiquities 18.195-202 and 19.343-350 (link). Comments: On the one hand, elsewhere in Antiquities, Josephos offers an overall negative categorization of the German imperial bodyguard and Germans generally as savages who lack control over their strong emotions (link to a passage which is framed by our two current ones). On the other, here Josephos does [ ]
Ancient author: Josephos, Judean Antiquities 19.119-153 (link). Comments: Josephos account of the death of emperor Gaius Caligula is aimed at demonstrating the power of Josephos Judean god even over foreign rulers. But in the process of relating details, Josephos includes a somewhat detailed episode involving the reaction of the so-called German bodyguard. Josephos description shows [ ]
Ancient authors: Xanthians, Dorians, and Aitolians, SEG 38 (1988), no. 1476 (206/205 BCE) = Jean Bousquet, “La stèle des Kyténiens à Xanthos de Lycie,” Revue des études grecques 101 (1988): 12–53 (link). Comments: This document is an important illustration of how different peoples might portray their connections with one another. The Xanthian stone was discovered [ ]
This post is a guide to ethnographic passages in the speeches or Orations of Dio of Prusa, also known as Dio Chrysostom (late first century CE): Barbarian wisdom – 12 (link) Ethnic diversity in Alexandria – 32 (link) Indians’ superior mode of life – 35 (link) Magians and Zoroastrians among Persians – 36 (link) Scythians [ ]
This post is a guide for reading sequentally through ethnographic passages in Strabo of Amaseia s Geography (early first century CE): Celts, Ethiopians and peoples in the middle – 2.2-2.3 (link) Indians, Ethiopians, and Iberians via Eudoxos of Kyzikos supposed expeditions and encounters with peoples – 2.3.4-5 (link) Travelers, soldiers and merchants as sources of orally [ ]
Ancient author: Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 17.3.24 (link). Comments: After surveying all of the inhabited world, Strabo concludes by returning to an ongoing theme throughout his work: the Romans superiority and effective control of most peoples throughout that world. These are the final paragraphs of his Geography. ‗‗‗‗‗‗ [For Strabo’s preceding discussion of [ ]
Ancient author: Eratosthenes (third century BCE), Artemidoros of Ephesos (late second century BCE), Gabinius, and others as discussed by Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 17.3.1-23 (with some omisssions) (link). Comments: Strabo s account of peoples in Libya (the northwestern part of the modern continent of Africa) is quite sparse on details regarding customs or lifestyles. [ ]
Ancient author: Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 17.2.1-3 (link). Comments: Strabo s discussion of Ethiopians is much shorter than the preceding survey of Egyptians but nonetheless goes into customs more broadly. Overall, Strabo stresses the hard lifestyle that went along with living in a harsh environment under the beating sun. So the image of a [ ]
Ancient author: Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 17.1.1-54 (with some omissions) and 17.2.5 (link). Comments: Following his discussion of Arabians, Strabo turns further southwest to deal with Egyptians and some other peoples within Egypt. He starts by suggesting a high level of civilization for Egyptians in many respects when compared to Ethiopians (further south), [ ]
Ancient authors: Homer, Poseidonios (first century BCE), and others as discussed in Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 16.4.27 (link). Comments: One of Strabo s ongoing concerns throughout his work is to establish the ethnographic reliability of Homer s poetry and to refute other authors who did not consider Homer usable for geographic matters (cf. 1.2.31). At [ ]
Ancient author: Strabo, Geography 16.4.25-26 (link). Comments: After dealing with Syrians and Phoenicians, Strabo turns his attention to Arabians and Nabateans specifically, sketching out some of their supposed customs. By means of ostensibly paradoxical sexual practices that turn Greek practices on their heads, Strabo exoticizes and apparently demeans as uncivilized Arabians generally. However,…
Ancient authors: Poseidonios (?) and Strabo, Geography 16.2.28, 34-40, 42-46 (link) Comments: Strabo s description of collecting bitumen from the Dead Sea that immediately follows this important ethnographic passage on the origins and customs of the Judeans cites Poseidonios of Apameia (first century BCE) as a source. This, combined with the fact that Strabo s story of [ ]
Ancient author: Strabo, Geography 16.2.22-24 (link). Comments: As Strabo surveys cities within Syria and Phoenicia, he turns to the two most famous cities, Tyre and Sidon. Here he focusses on the achievements of both of these peoples whose contributions are considered comparable, if different. This contrasts to the very negative treatment of Itureans that preceded. [ ]
Ancient authors: Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 16.1.1-2, 6, 8, 16-18, 20, 24-27 and 16.3.1 (link). Comments: In this section, Strabo turns to a somewhat vague outline of peoples near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers under the banner of Assyrians or Babylonians. He also deals with some other adjacent peoples, including mountain-dwelling populations that [ ]
Ancient authors: Eratosthenes (third century BCE), Geography = FGrHist 241 F95; Agatharchides of Knidos (second century BCE), On the Erythraian Sea = FGrHist 86 F32c, 34c, 35c, 47c; Artemidoros of Ephesos (late second century BCE), FGrHist 438 F99-100 (link to FGrHist), as discussed by Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 16.4.2-5, 8-14, 17-21 (link). Comments: Strabo [ ]
Ancient author: Epiphanios of Salamis on Cyprus, The Medicine Chest / Panarion preface 2, 3 and 1-4 (link to Greek). Comments (by Maia Kotrosits): The Panarion, or “medicine chest,” was written by Epiphanius of Cyprus, Bishop of Salamis. It is a famous example of Christian heresiological literature, late ancient literature that sought to define normative Christian [ ]
This post provides a guide for reading through ethnographic passages on this website from the Roman senator Tacitus (ca. 97-117 CE): Agricola (ca. 97-98 CE) Britons – 10-12 (link) Germania (ca. 98 CE) Germans, i.e. peoples northeast of the Rhine – Germania in its entirety (link) Histories (ca. 109 CE) Sarmatians – 1.79 (link) Boians among Celts [ ]
Ancient author: Tacitus, Histories 2.61 (link). Comments: Tacitus story of a revolt by the Celtic Boians (placed in 69 CE) is much much shorter than his accounts of revolts by Britons (under Boudicca – link) and Batavians (under Civilis – link). But it does once again seek to characterize a particular population (in this case [ ]
Ancient author: Tacitus (early second century CE), Annals 14.29-39 (link); Dio Cassius (early third century CE), Roman History 62.3–6, as summarized by John Xiphilinus (eleventh century; link). Comments: Both Tacitus and Dio Cassius use the story of Boudicca s leadership of Britons (Icenians in particular in Tacitus) resistance to Roman rule (placed in 60-61 CE) to [ ]
Ancient author: Tacitus, Histories 4.12–18 and 5.17, 24-26 (link). Comments: Tacitus story of the revolt of the Batavians in what is now the Netherlands, led by Civilis and placed in 69-70 CE (for the full account see 4.12-37, 54-79; 5.14–26), also entails Tacitus own sketches here and there of the supposed character of the Batavians, [ ]
This is a guide for reading ethnographic passages on this website from Philo of Alexandria (early first century CE): Amalekites as an arch-enemy people (link) Midianites and Moabites / Arabians (link) Egyptians and Judeans in conflict at Alexandria (link) Germans (link) Persian, Indian, and Judean (Essene) sages and freedom (link) Persian Magians (link) Babylonian Chaldeans [ ]
This post is a guide for reading through ethnographic passages on this website by Celsus (mid-second century CE) and Origen of Alexandria (mid-third century CE): Barbarian wisdom (link) Persian wisdom, the Magians and howlers of chants (link) Persian and Zoroastrian wisdom via Mithras mysteries, according to Celsus (link) Ethnic hierarchies, according to Origen (link) Ethiopians [ ]
Ancient author: Anonymous (mid-fourth century BCE [?]), Opposing Views / Dissoi Logoi 2.1-19 (link to Greek edition by Weber 1897). Comments: This anonymous work, which may or may not date to the mid-fourth century BCE (Molinelli 2018, 35-44), asserts the relativity or at least situational nature of what is good and what is shameful. In [ ]
Ancient author: Philo of Alexandria (early first century CE), Allegorical Interpretation 1.63-70 and 2.65-67 (link). Comments: In these allegorical or symbolic interpretations of the Adam and Eve narratives in Genesis, the Judean Philo of Alexandria makes the assumption that Ethiopia (and therefore Ethiopians) represents cowardice whereas Assyrians represent self-control. He then returns to…
Ancient authors: Origen (early second century CE), Commentary on the Song of Songs 2.1, as paraphrased by Rufinus (ca. 410 CE) (link); Homilies on the Song of Songs 1.6, in Jerome s Latin translation (link); On Prayer 27.12. Comments: Origen s troubling allegorical approaches to Ethiopian figures, including the Ethiopian woman in Solomon s Song of Songs and [ ]
Ancient author: Firmicus Maternus, On the Errors of Impious Rites / De errore profanarum religionis 1-6 (link; link to Latin). Comments (by Justin Nadeau): We know nothing about Julius Firmicus Maternus beyond what he tells us in his writings. He was from Syracuse in Sicily and had practiced law at some point. Mention of other contemporaries [ ]
Ancient authors: Bardaisan of Edessa (late-second to early-third century CE) as presented by Philippos, Book of the Laws of Countries, or Dialogue on Fate = FGrHist 719 F3, sections 1, 12-14, 18-31 (link to Syriac and full translation; link to FGrHist); Pseudo-Clement (second-third centuries, but 406 CE in this Latin translation by Rufinus of Aquileia), [ ]
Ancient authors: Poseidonios of Apameia (early first century BCE), On Ocean, Kidd F49C, as discussed by Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 2.3.4-5 (link). Comments: Early on in his work on Geography, Strabo deals with broad issues regarding the shape of the earth and its seas and regarding his sources. Poseidonios of Apameia is one [ ]
This post provides a guide for reading sequentally through ethnographic passages from Dio Cassius Roman History (ca. 211-233 CE) on this website: Celts / Galatians and their moral character – 12, fragments 50 and 57.6b (link) Romans, an oracle and burying Galatians – 12, fragment via Zonaras 8.19-20 (link) Judeans – 37.15-17; 49.22; 57.18.5; 60.6.6-7; [ ]
Ancient authors: Cassius Dio (early third century CE), Roman History 67.4.6-7, as summarized by Zonaras (twelfth century; link); Aristides (mid-second century CE), Orations 41.515 (Letter Concerning Smyrna) (link). Comments: Both Aelius Aristides and Cassius Dio refer to this anecdote regarding emperor Domitian s call for the annihilation of the Nasamonians in Libya. For earlier accounts of [ ]
Ancient author: Dio Cassius (early third century CE), Roman History 77.12.1–5 and 77.15.1-5, as summarized by John Xiphilinus (eleventh century; link). Comments: Primarily as a justification of emperor Septimius Severus invasion of Kaledonia around 208 CE, Dio Cassius sketches out a picture of two primitive, wild and dangerous populations on the island of Britannia. A [ ]
Ancient author: Unstated authors including Herodotos (late fifth century BCE), Histories 1.131-132; and, stated authors Nearchos (late fourth century BCE), FGrHist 133 F26; Polykleitos of Larisa (late fourth century BCE), FGrHist 128 F3a; and, Eratosthenes (third century BCE), FGrHist 241 F86 (link to FGrHist), as discussed by Strabo, Geography 15.3.1, 4, 11-24 (link). Comments: Largely drawing […
Ancient authors: Eratosthenes (third century BCE) and another itinerary source used by Eratosthenes, as discussed by Strabo (early first century CE), Geography 15.2.8-10, 14 (link). Comments: After dealing with Indians, Strabo begins to move north and west, dealing with peoples in the regions of Gedrosia, Ariana, and Karmania. Eratosthenes is definitely Strabo s source for the [ ]
Ancient authors: Nearchos (late fourth century BCE), FGrHist 133, as cited by Arrian of Nikomedia (second century CE), Anabasis, or Indian Matters 8.19-43 (link) and by Strabo, Geography 15.2.2; Agatharchides of Knidos (second century BCE), FGrHist 86 F31b-50, as cited by Diodoros of Sicily (mid-first century BCE), Library of History 3.14-23 (link) and F32c, 34c, [ ]
Ancient author: Strabo, Geography 2.5.11-13 and 15.1.1-6 (link) Comments: In these two passages – one from the beginning of his work and the other from the introduction to his account of Indians – Strabo outlines not only his own methods but also the methods he assumes that others among the literary elites have used to [ ]
authors: Megasthenes (late fourth century BCE), Indian Matters = FGrHist 715 F19b, 20b, 23b, 27b, 31-34a, 35a; Aristoboulos of Kassandreia (late fourth century BCE), FGrHist 139 F41-42; Onesikritos of Astypalaia (late fourth century BCE), FGrHist 134 F16a, 17a; Nearchos of Crete, FGrHist 133 F23 (late fourth century BCE); Artemidoros of Ephesos (early first century BCE), Geographical Descriptions…